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Problems with the childbirth accompanied the human civilization since its beginning. From the ancient times, physicians and other people specializing in healing, tried to help women in this special moment of life. At the base of this exceptional meaning of childbirth for humans lies the fact, that if something is going wrong there are two victims - mother and the child. As a result, many times there had been very dramatic attempts of help in this the most difficult journey which in his life every man is undergoing. In this paper a comprehensive review of literature about the history of caesarean section from ancient times to the end of 17th century was done.

The paper discusses the historical perspective - from ancient to modern times - on the evolution of military medicine and its support during the wars and battles as well as its impact on the development of civilian health care and emergency medical services. Indicated breakthroughs related to conducting military operations and pointed to the visionaries who have developed new paradigms of medical care, including programs designed to assess the health status of patients, treatment in the battlefield, medical transport, anesthesia, surgery and emergency procedures. Highlighted the important role of proper organization and urgent help to victims.

Most likely, opium was the first narcotic substance discovered at the dawn of humankind. The history of drug addiction is immensely rich and allows for tracing the long way humankind had to travel to reach the contemporary level of consciousness with respect to narcotic substances. A retrospective view of drug addiction that takes into consideration the historical context, while extending our knowledge, also allows for a better understanding of today's problems. The report presents elements of a retrospective view of problems associated with addiction to opium, morphine and heroin over the centuries, what is a subject of scientific interest in contemporary toxicology.

Syphilis is a specific inflammation which is extremely difficult to clearly diagnose in archaeological material. The origin of this disease is unclear. Most proponents hold the view that it comes from America, and that it was transmitted to Europe by sailors travelling with Columbus. In addition to the thesis of the American origin of syphilis is a suggestion that a mild form of syphilis existed in Europe before Columbus' expeditions. This form, until the end of the fifteenth century, began to spread epidemics. In Poland, the first officially reported case of the disease was described in 1495. Today, an increase in the incidence of new cases in Poland and globally can be observed. An increasing number of cases of congenital syphilis in newborns is also noted. This situation in Poland is connected with a change in the law in 2001, according to which only insured persons became entitled to free treatment. In view of the rising tide of the disease, and the appearance of advanced forms of the disease, in 2009 the free diagnosis, treatment, and follow up for all patients with syphilis was restored.

It is estimated that over one third of the human population is now exposed or has been exposed in the past to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and new infections occur in the world at a rate of one per second. The history of tuberculosis is long and very interesting, because before the isolation of mycobacteria and the finding of a cure, the disease mercilessly killed thousands of people and deprived doctors of hope. Robert Koch's momentous discovery was a major breakthrough in the fight against tuberculosis. Unfortunately, the disease has never been fully controlled. Tuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease localized in 90-95% of cases in the lungs, and therefore it is extremely difficult to diagnose unequivocally in paleopathological material. Only the form of osteo-arthritis leaves traces in archaeological material. The earliest evidence of tuberculosis (the location of the spine, Pott's disease) in the form of fossils is dated to before 8000 BC. Another very old trace is considered to be human remains from the Neolithic period (ca 5000 BC), found near Heidelberg, where changes in the thoracic spine are typical for spondylitis in tuberculosa. Constant growth in the incidence of new cases in the world can be observed today. Not everyone infected will develop the full-blown disease. The infection may remain dormant. However, one in ten latent infections will subsequently be activated, leading, if not treated, to the death of almost half of the patients.

The history ofNiemirów, a health resort on the south-eastern borderland of Poland is recounted in full particulars first of all. A mild climate, charming regions, natural stuffs (sulphuric-alkaline salt springs and therapeutic mud) formed the status of this health resort. The indications and contraindications in many diseases and effects of treatment in a health resort are described. The bats in Niemirów and fixtures are presented widely. The chances of recreation and attractions in this health resort are presented finally.

Dancing mania is a clinical and cultural phenomenon which occurred in Western Europe between 13th and 18th centuries. The term dancing mania is derived from the Greek words choros, a dance, and mania, a madness. An Italian variant was known as tarantism as victims were believed to have been bitten by tarantula spider. Although symptoms of dancing manias were well documented in contemporary writings the exact aetiology of dancing plaques is still unclear. Several causes for dancing mania have been postulated: demonic possession, the bite of tarantula, ergot poisoning, epilepsy, mass hysterias, exotics religious cults. The article contains a review of hypothesis of epidemic dances included both medical and psychological factors.

Introduction: We present the results of an anthropological and paleopathological analysis of 7 graves discovered at the site of a church-hospital complex existing in the 14th-18th century in Łeczyca (province of Łódź). The aim was to determine whether the skeletons revealed features typical for the function of the complex., Material and Methods: The graves contained the remains of 8 persons: 4 men (2 of them aged 20-40 years and 2 aged 40-60 years), 2 women (aged 40-60 years), and 2 children (one aged 2-4 years and a 10-month-old fetus or neonate buried together with one of the women)., Results: Four skeletons of adults (out of 5 skeletons in a condition adequate for the study) showed pathological (degenerative) and traumatic lesions. Pathologies of the masticatory organ (mainly intravital loss of teeth and recession of the alveolar process) were seen in all preserved adult skulls., Conclusions: The high incidence of pathologies indicates that we were dealing with the remains of patients of a hospital.

Mercury has a long history, fascinating in its many aspects. Through the centuries--from ancient times to the present day--the metal in its various forms, also known under the name "quicksilver", accompanied the man and was used for diversified purposes. Today, mercury is employed in manufacturing thermometers, barometers, vacuum pumps and explosives. It is also used in silver and gold mining processes. Mercury compounds play a significant role in dentistry, pharmaceutical industry and crop protection. The contemporary use of mercury markedly decreases, but historically speaking, the archives abound in materials that document facts and events occurring over generations and the immense intellectual effort aiming at discovering the true properties and mechanisms of mercury activity. Mercury toxicity, manifested in destruction of biological membranes and binding of the element with proteins, what disturbs biochemical processes occurring in the body, was discovered only after many centuries of the metal exerting its effect on the lives of individuals and communities. For centuries, mercury was present in the work of alchemists, who searched for the universal essence or quintessence and the so-called philosopher's stone. In the early modern era, between the 16th and 19th centuries, mercury was used to manufacture mirrors. Mercury compounds were employed as a medication against syphilis, which plagued mankind for more than four hundred years--from the Middle Ages till mid 20th century, when the discovery of penicillin became the turning point. This extremely toxic therapy resulted in much suffering, individual tragedies, chronic poisonings leading to fatalities and dramatic sudden deaths. In the last fifty years, there even occurred attempts of mentally imbalanced individuals at injecting themselves with metallic mercury, also as a performance-enhancing drug. Instances of mass mercury poisoning occurred many times in the past in consequence of eating food products poisoned with organic mercury compounds originating from the natural environment.

Forensic psychiatry and psychology were in their beginnings inseparably associated with the forensic medicine, constituting one of its related branches of knowledge. Progress and development of these disciplines, education and the practical application for the purposes of the law were a contribution of a several generations of forensic pathologists in the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the major issues of common interest was opinionating on the sanity of offenders. However, the problem of criminal responsibility of the mentally ill perpetrators dates back to much earlier times and has its roots in the distant beginnings of human civilization. In this paper, the history and evolution of the insanity concept (as a circumstance excluding the guilt of the offender) were presented, from the oldest theories to ideas underlying modern codifications.

History of cigarette smoking started on XV century, when Columb imported tobacco to Europe. Popular using of tobacco we are indebted Jaen Nicot Villeman, the name of nicotine originate from his surname. Tobacco first was exploited like a drug, however now it is a very harmful stimulant. Cigarette smoking is still an actual problem and increased risk of many diseases. Very toxic components of smoke get inside all the organs and upsetting their activities and proper running of the life processes. It is common knowledge that smoking badly influences women's health. Nicotine makes the negative influence on function of ovaries metabolism of hormones and state of osseous tissue. Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with obstetrical and pediatrician complication with fetus, newborn and child. The aim of the article is to summarize the role of tobacco smoking on women's health.

The mechanism of color perception has intrigued scholars from antiquity. However, the understanding of this phenomena only came with the recognition of the nature of light and visual perception. Ancient concepts, present in science until the Renaissance, were based more on philosophical considerations and theoretical speculations than on anatomical studies and a matter-of-fact assessment of physiological functions of the visual system. From antiquity to 17th century scientific approach to the concept of vision was dominated by two theories: intromission and extramission (emanation). Intromission theory, propagated by Alhazen (lbn al.-Haythama), Vitello, John Peckham, Roger Bacon and Leonardo da Vinci, assumed that the light was transmitted from the observed object perpendicularly to the transparent eye structures. Johannes Kepler was the first scholar to propose that the retina was the receptive part of the eye. In the first half of the 17th century, Kepler's groundbreaking optical achievements and anatomical discoveries of many other scientists cast new light on the understanding of the role of different eye structures, finally wiping out the intromission theory. A further major achievement contributing to the recognition of the true nature of colors was a theory presented by Newton in 1688. He argued that they were colored rays, and not white light, that were composed of homogenous and pure light. It was, however, not until the 19th century when two modern theories of color appeared, i.e. a trichromatic theory mostly associated with the names of Young and Hemlholtz, and an opponent colors theory of Hering. In the 20th century, the two theories--previously assumed as contradictory--were joined into the zone theories of color vision. Colors have their cultural and social meanings, as far as a very individual and personal interpretation. In the former function they are used to illustrate some cultural and sociological phenomena; in the latter, they are helpful in psychological analyses of patients. The paper outlines major historical concepts of color perception and the present usefulness of color vision tests in psychology.

In the historical context, theories of vision reflected gradual recognition of human anatomy, physiology and histology, including also the development of optics. Ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the lens is the part of the eye responsible for light reception. It was followed by misconception of the central localization of the lens within the eye. This approach outlasted until the 16th century. Then, due to such scholars as Leonardo da Vinci, Felix Platter, Hieronymus Fabricius d'Aquapendente, Johannes Kepler and Christopher Schemer, the previous concepts concerning the role of the lens were gradually questioned, and finally its role was limited to light refraction and focusing the light beam to the bottom of the eye. In the 17th century appeared a controversy concerning the two membranes--retina and choroidea--and question which one of them is responsible for the reception of light. Finally, it was only at the onset of the 19th century when the true function of retina was confirmed.

Hernia (Greek kele/hernios--bud or offshoot) was present in the human history from its very beginning. The role of surgery was restricted to the treatment of huge umbilical and groin hernias and life-threatening incarcerated hernias. The treatment of groin hernia can be divided into five eras. The oldest epoch was ancient era from ancient Egypt to 15th century. The Egyptian Papirus of Ebers contains description of a hernia: swelling that comes out during coughing. Most essential knowledge concerning hernias in ancient times derives from Galen. This knowledge with minor modifications was valid during Middle Ages and eventually in the Renaissance the second era of hernia treatment began. Herniology flourished mainly due to many anatomical discoveries. In spite of many important discoveries from 18th to 19th century the treatment results were still unsatisfactory. Astley Cooper stated that no disease treated surgically involves from surgeon so broad knowledge and skills as hernia and its many variants. Introduction of anesthesia and antiseptic procedures constituted the beginning of modern hernia surgery known as era of hernia repair under tension (19th to middle 20th century). Three substantial rules were introduced to hernia repair technique: antiseptic and aseptic procedures. high ligation of hernia sac and narrowing of the internal inguinal ring. In spite of the progress the treatment results were poor. Recurrence rate during four years was ca. 100% and postoperative mortality gained even 7%. The treatment results were satisfactory after new surgical technique described by Bassini was implemented. Bassini introduced the next rule of hernia repair ie. reconstruction of the posterior wall of inguinal canal. The next landmark in inguinal hernia surgery was the method described by Canadian surgeon E. Shouldice. He proposed imbrication of the transverse fascia and strengthening of the posterior wall of inguinal canal by four layers of fasciae and aponeuroses of oblique muscles. These modifications decreased recurrence rate to 3%. The next epoch in the history of hernia surgery lasting to present days is referred to as era of tensionless hernia repair. The tension of sutured layers was reduced by incisions of the rectal abdominal muscle sheath or using of foreign materials. The turning point in hernia surgery was discovery of synthetic polymers by Carothers in 1935. The first tensionless technique described by Lichtenstein was based on strengthening of the posterior wall of inguinal canal with prosthetic material. Lichtenstein published the data on 1,000 operations with Marlex mesh without any recurrence in 5 years after surgery. Thus fifth rule of groin hernia repair was introduced--tensionless repair. Another treatment method was popularized by Rene Stoppa, who used Dacron mesh situated in preperitoneal space without fixing sutures. First such operation was performed in 1975, and reported recurrence rates were quite low (1.4%). The next type of repair procedure was sticking of a synthetic plug into inguinal canal. Lichtenstein in 1968 used Marlex mesh plug (in shape of a cigarette) in the treatment of inguinal and femoral hernias. The mesh was fixated with single sutures. The next step was introduction of a Prolene Hernia System which enabled repair of the tissue defect in three spaces: preperitoneal, above transverse fascia and inside inguinal canal. Laproscopic treatment of groin hernias began in 20th century. The first laparoscopic procedure was performed by P. Fletcher in 1979. In 1990 Schultz plugged inguinal canal with polypropylene mesh. Later such methods like TAPP and TEP were introduced. The disadvantages of laparoscopic approach were: high cost and risk connected with general anesthesia. In conclusion it may be stated that history of groin hernia repair evolved from life-saving procedures in case of incarcerated hernias to elective operations performed within the limits of 1 day surgery.

The first description of the use of cocaine by humans can be found in the memoirs of the Florentine traveller Amerigo Vespucci (1451-1512). For the next 300 years mostly the advantages of cocaine use, also as a medication, were emphasized. In 1860 Albert Niemann (1834-1861) isolated an active ingredient of coca leaves, which he named cocaine. After his death, his work was carried on by his disciple Wilhelm Lossen (1838-1906), who finally, in 1865, determined its proper chemical formula. Although the first observations concerning the effect of cocaine on mucous membranes were made by Niemann and Lossen, the first experimental studies involving the application of cocaine to animals were performed by the Peruvian surgeon Moréno y Maïz. In 1880 Basil von Anrep (1852-1925) published the results of his studies concerning the application of cocaine to humans. In the conclusion of his work he recommended cocaine as a surgical anaesthesia. But it was finally Carl Koller (1857-1944) who, in 1884, empirically demonstrated the benefits of cocaine use in medicine, most of all in ophthalmology. Subsequently, within a couple of months, the medical world learnt about and got interested in the use of cocaine for local anaesthesia. William Stewart Halsted (1852-1922) and his collaborator Richard John Hall (1856-1897) began their own research on cocaine injections. Eventually they developed the nerve and regional blocking techniques. Nowadays, due to the potential harmful effects of cocaine and the risk of addiction, the indications for the use of cocaine as an anaesthetic are strictly limited.

In the paper the development of the patient's rights to informed consent to treatment has been discussed with reference to codes of medical ethics. The expression of the patient's rights and recognition of his/her active part in the course of treatment was proceeding gradually and parallel to the evolution of the subjective term "patient". Nowadays the patient's rights are determined by many declarations and international conventions, e.g. the Human Rights and Dignity Convention (1996). The so-called informed consent includes the right to the complete information about the course of treatment as well as the risk taken especially during surgical treatment and the right of a shared decision to choose the treatment. Patients who are unconscious and those with limited consciousness constitute the problem that is still being solved. It is expected that along with the development of medical ethics, the medico-legal regulations concerning the above mentioned issues will be specified soon. Besides the obligatory legal regulations, in many difficult cases the assessment and decision whether the patient's consent is informed or not, burden only a physician's conscience.

The main subject of the present paper is to illustrate some aspects of the relation between art and medicine in early modern Europe. The aim of this research is to show how the human body was perceived by the people at that time, and what changes in presentation of the human body appeared during this long period of time and what factors evoked them. The basic sources for this research are the popular and medical ilustrations which were the basis of medical knowledge in early modern Europe and influenced the consciousness and intellectual development of the widest circles of readers. At the beginning the author delt with the issue of the image of the female body in the discourse of medicine and science. Than she tried to show to what extant the way human body was presented in arts was corelated with the development in medicine and focuses on different ways of presenting the human body from the middle ages to the end of 18th century.

The present notion - tracheotomy, originates from the Latin words trachea - windpipe, which comes from the combination of Latin "tracheia" and Greek "arteria" indicating an uneven road, and "tome" - cut. Procedures of pharyngotomy have a long-lasting history. First similar operations were found on the ancient Egyptian clay tablets dating back to 3600 BC. Mentions of pharyngotomy operations were found in the papyrus called Ebers's Papyrus dating back to about 1550 BC, which can obviously be treated as an encyclopaedia of the medical knowledge that the ancient Egyptians possessed. Guidelines for the person performing pharyngotomy were described in Rig Veda - the holy scriptures of Hindi medicine, about 2000 BC. Asclepiads of Prussia in Bithynia (124-156 BC), a Greek physician practising in Rome, is commonly considered the father of pharyngotomy. In the 1st century BC he documented an operation similar to pharyngotomy. Procedures similar to pharyngotomy were conducted by Claudius Galenus of Pergamon (about 130-200 AD) who was treating gladiators at the beginning of his medical career. A precise description of the technique in pharyngotomy performed by the method adopted from Antilla (3rd century AD) was presented by Paulos Aeginata (625-690 AD), whereas in modern times the first surgical pharyngotomy was performed by Antonio Brasavola (1490-1554) in 1546. In those times pharyngotomy operations were applied as life saving procedures and were associated with a desperate fight for life. The best example is given by Sanctorio Santorius (1561-1636) who pierced the trachea lumen with a trocar. All the experiences connected with the pharyngotomy technique were collected by Lorenz Heister (1683-1758) and published in his work "Surgery" in 1716. Until the end of 18th century the work finally established views about performing pharyngotomy operations. In 1856 Eugeniusz Bonchut conducted the first pharyngotomy in a child with passing an intubation tube into the trachea lumen. The operation was performed according to theoretical assumptions by Armando Trausseau (1801-1867), whose contributions to emergency pharyngotomy methods are enormous. Finally, at the beginning of the 20th century Chevalier Jackson (1865-1958) set principles for surgical techniques in pharyngotomy that still remain in force. The return to Sanctorius's method and also adaptation of Selinger's method (1953) of cannulation of blood vessels turned out to be fundamental for the further development of transdermal pharyngotomy. The first set for multistage, dilatation pharyngotomy was provided by P. Ciaglia et al. in 1985. A one-stage pharyngotomy by special forceps was described by W. M. Griggs et al. in 1990. A technique of transdermal pharyngotomy from inside the trachea was presented in 1995 by A. Fantoni with his group. Modern methods of transdermal pharyngotomy are good complementary techniques for classical methods of pharyngotomy in both emergency and chronic cases.

Tobacco was brought to Europe by Christopher Columbus, who discovered it in Cuba in October, 1492. Spread of tobacco consumption was initiated by the French diplomat Jean Nicot de Villemain, who in 1560 recommended it in the form of powdered tobacco leaves to the French Queen Catherine de Medice to combat her migraine headaches, and introduced the term Nicotiana tobaccum. Tobacco consumption greatly rose after the I World War, and after the II World War it became very common, especially among man. In the first half of the 20th century the sale of tobacco products rose by 61%, and cigarettes dominated the market of tobacco products. At the beginning of the 20th century cigarettes constituted only 2% of the total sale of tobacco products, while in the middle of the 20th century--more than 80%. Although the first epidemiological papers indicating that "smoking is connected with the shortening of life span" were published in the first half of the 20th century, not until 1950 did Hill and Doll in Great Britain, and Wynder and Graham in USA in 1951 show a statistically significant correlation between cigarettes smoking and lung cancer occurrence. Many controversies according the use of tobacco accompanied it from the beginning of its presence in Europe. The conflicting opinions according to its influence to health coexisted in the 16th to 19th centuries. In this period, especially in the 19th century dominated moral and religious arguments against tobacco. In the 20th century however, and particularly in its second part, development in medical research was enhanced by civil voluntary actions against advertisement and passive smoking. This lead to the significant limitation of tobacco expansion in Europe, USA and Canada in the end of the 20th century.

Tobacco was brought to Europe by Christopher Columbus, who discovered it in Cuba in October, 1492. Spread of tobacco consumption was initiated by the French diplomat Jean Nicot de Villemain, who in 1560 recommended it in the form of powdered tobacco leaves to the French Queen Catherine de Medice to combat her migraine headaches, and introduced the term Nicotiana tobaccum. Tobacco consumption greatly rose after the I World War, and after the II World War it became very common, especially among man. In the first half of the 20th century the sale of tobacco products rose by 61%, and cigarettes dominated the market of tobacco products. At the beginning of the 20th century cigarettes constituted only 2% of the total sale of tobacco products, while in the middle of the 20th century--more than 80%. Although the first epidemiological papers indicating that "smoking is connected with the shortening of life span" were published in the first half of the 20th century, not until 1950 did Hill and Doll in Great Britain, and Wynder and Graham in USA in 1951 show a statistically significant correlation between cigarettes smoking and lung cancer occurrence. Many controversies according the use of tobacco accompanied it from the beginning of its presence in Europe. The conflicting opinions according to its influence to health coexisted in the 16th to 19th centuries. In this period, especially in the 19th century dominated moral and religious arguments against tobacco. In the 20th century however, and particularly in its second part, development in medical research was enhanced by civil voluntary actions against advertisement and passive smoking. This lead to the significant limitation of tobacco expansion in Europe, USA and Canada in the end of the 20th century.

The beginning of barber-surgeons activity in the Rzeszów area was presented in this paper. The first entry of the presence of barber-surgeons in Rzeszów dates from 1484 and informs about a conflict between them and the bath attendants. In 1626, following the example of other Polish cities, the first barber-surgeons guild was established also in Rzeszów. The names of its founders are cited in this paper. Albert Boniecki was the first head of the surgical guild. In consequence of changes in the composition of the population and religious faith, a new guild was created in 1699, whose members were both, Christian and Jews. Until to the end of the so called First Polish Republic, the surgical activity in Rzeszów was in the hands of guild-educated barber-surgeons. Two tables give the numbers and names of Christian and Jewish surgeons in particular years. Figures bring the shape of original documents.

The paper outlines the beginnings of the process of naming laryngological diseases in the Polish language, and is based on 15th and 16th century relics of the Polish language. The authors relied in their analysis on the registers, as well as practical health guides such as herbarium books and strictly scientific medical manuals. Most of old Polish names of illnesses include original names based on the observation of the symptoms of illnesses and their clinical aspects. A great number of synonyms, both native and derived from foreign words, deserve special attention, indicating that attempts must have been made to find appropriate terms, which would best express the characteristics of a given illness. The presence of names derived from Latin and Greek should be attributed to the attempts at unifying medical terminology. Over the centuries, as the language and medical science have developed, names of illnesses have undergone a number of changes. It should be noted that numerous names derived from old Polish are still applied as medical terms.

Anorexia nervosa when described from a critical, historical perspective, may be successfully construed as a viable psychiatric illness. Just as fasting girls and victorian anorexics gained attention and respect in their families and communities, modern adolescent anorexics often derive reinforcement from peers and community acceptance of their self-starvation. This theoretical construction makes it possible to explain the changing nature of anorexia nervosa trough the ages and its' continued increase as well.

The surgery, apart from the obstetrics, is the oldest field of medicine. Necessity of coming to the rescue in mechanical injuries--caused mostly by food fighting, military operations, self-defence activity and all kinds of accidents--was the reason of surgery origin. This field of medicine has always been rational.

In the paper we underlined the benefits of the labour in the vertical position in contrast to many disadvantages of parturition in recumbent or semi-recumbent position. These not natural positions are the consequences of the development of obstetrics manoeuvres as late as 200 years ago. In our opinion there is the necessity of the changing our minds on pros and cons of horizontal position during labour.

This paper describes the Polish physician's - Mikołaj Wodka (1442-1494) short biography.

Albrecht Durer is a great artist between Middle Ages and Renaissance. He is an author of Four Books on Human Proportions and Perspective. He is also the author of the study of the hands on blue paper - "Praying Hands". This person could have had various diseases: diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, or a circulatory failure. The importance of Durer's works is illustrated by its historical, medical, and artistic interpretation.

The epoque of king Casimir Jagiellonczyk was a period of splendid development of the Polish-Lithuanian state, mainly due to regaining of Danzig (Gdansk). In the time, Godzislaw from Gorzyce, village of undetermined location (there were 13 villages named Gorzyce in Poland), son of a poor Polish peasant, made a career. He was born about 1410 and in 1428 entered the Cracow University, the only in the country at that time. Nobody knows where (probably in Italy) and for whose money he got university degrees, including doctor degree of medicine. In the forties of 15th century he was such a famous physician in Cracow, that the patients came to him even from Great Poland. Godzislaw was enobled by king Casimir in 1456, when he already was a king's physician and a priest. He probably died in Cracow about 1470, twenty years before the king, who was some 15 years younger.

The purpose of this article is an attempt to show a health situation of Jagiellons reigning Poland. In the publication there are presented the profiles of Giedymin's descendants, the attention is drawn to their diseases and the ways of fighting them. For the reason that there are sketchy descriptions of diseases found in XVth and XVIth century sources, giving definitions of what diseases the rulers of Poland have been suffering from is purely hypothetical. The author who is making a diagnosis, today - after five centuries - is not claiming the right to infallibility. At the same time the article is trying to show possible similarities and differences in attitute towards health of the individual monarchs. In the publication, apart from information about diseases, we can find descriptions by the medicals or generally by the people and institutions engaged in medicine in period under discussion.

Nicolaus Kopernik, the outstanding scientist of Toruń, the author of the heliocentric system, was also a lawyer, mathematician, theologian and won some successes in the field of medicine. In the years 1497-1503, with a short break for the visit in Frombork (1501) he was studying in Italy, where, during his two years' stay in Padua, he also gained the science of therapy. Earlier he obtained the consent of the Church Chapter in Frombork to study medicine, so that he could be later this Chapter's physician. He was performing this duty from his return home until his death. At first he was the physician of his uncle Lukasz von Watzenrode in the bishop's residence in Lidzbark, and afterwards he was also treating other bishops. His medical fame reached far beyond Warmia, and the fact that he was helping not only the rich ones, but all who needed it, brought him common esteem. He consulted more difficult cases with outstanding physicians of this era. The portrait of Kopernik painted by Tobiasz Stimmer, on which he is holding a lily of the valley recorded his character as a physician.