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Copyright of Medycyna Pracy is the property of Instytut Medycyny Pracy im. Jerzego Nofera and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Medycyna Pracy is the property of Instytut Medycyny Pracy im. Jerzego Nofera and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Solid waste storage in specially designated areas - landfills - has been the basic method of municipal solid waste disposal management for many years. However, thermal treatment is the currently preferred method of solid waste disposal. Hygienic assessment of working conditions in municipal waste incineration plants is hindered due to the variability and complexity of pollutants emitted during the combustion process. For many years studies describing this problem have focused mainly on chemical pollution inside the plants as well as emitted into the atmosphere. Available data indicates the presence of organic dust at workplaces in the range 0.1-14 mg/m 3 . It has been proven that it is a carrier of a wide spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and both mesophilic and thermophilic actinomycetes as well as adenoviruses and torque teno virus (TTV). In the air, at workplaces, bacterial endotoxins have also been found in concentrations reaching even 50 000 EU/m 3 , which may significantly affect the occurrence of pro-inflammatory reactions in the lungs as well as toxic pneumonitis. Biological agents should be taken into account in the occupational risk assessment for harmful agents present in this environment, and an in-depth characterization of exposure and health effects resulting from contact with these agents should be continued to an even greater extent than before. Med Pr. 2019;70(1):99-105., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

Background: In recent years, the number of people suffering from diseases caused by fungi has been increasing. However, knowledge of the biodiversity of fungal pathogens in the work environment is still insufficient. The aim of this work was to evaluate the exposure to fungi being disseminated in the air of workplaces contaminated with organic dust of plant and animal origin., Material and Methods: Bioaerosol samples were collected at 3 occupational settings (poultry farm, biomass burning power plant and wastewater treatment plant) using button samplers. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of fungal aerosol was conducted by employing macro- and microscopic methods. Selected strains were then studied by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using środointernal transcribed spacers (ITS): ITS1-ITS2, ITS3-ITS4 and ITS1-ITS4 primer pairs., Results: Average concentrations of fungal aerosol at workplaces ranged 1.2×102-2.1×106 cfu/m 3 . The highest fungal concentrations were recorded in the poultry farm, while the lowest were noted at the wastewater treatment plant. Aspergillus fumigatus was a predominant component of the mycobiota in the power plant and wastewater treatment plant. Almost 100% identification agreement of this pathogen between the traditional and molecular method was noted., Conclusions: The fungal concentrations in poultry farms exceeded the Polish proposal for the threshold limit value (5×104 cfu/m 3 ). The results of the study demonstrate a high compatibility of A. fumigatus' identification using the traditional and molecular methods. Taking into account the fact, that a long term exposure to A. fumigatus conidia at workplaces may result in numerous health complaints, the use of proper protective equipment by workers must be a standard procedure. Med Pr 2018;69(3):269-280., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

Background: The aim of the study was to assess the ability of natural, synthetic and semi-synthetic fibers to transport microbial particles., Material and Methods: The simultaneously settled dust and aerosol sampling was carried out in 3 industrial facilities processing natural (cotton, silk, flax, hemp), synthetic (polyamide, polyester, polyacrylonitrile, polypropylene) and semi-synthetic (viscose) fibrous materials; 2 stables where horses and sheep were bred; 4 homes where dogs or cats were kept and 1 zoo lion pavilion. All samples were laboratory analyzed for their microbiological purity. The isolated strains were qualitatively identified. To identify the structure and arrangement of fibers that may support transport of microbial particles, a scanning electron microscopy analysis was performed., Results: Both settled and airborne fibers transported analogous microorganisms. All synthetic, semi-synthetic and silk fibers, present as separated threads with smooth surface, were free from microbial contamination. Natural fibers with loose packing and rough surface (e.g., wool, horse hair), sheaf packing and septated surface (e.g., flax, hemp) or present as twisted ribbons with corrugated surface (cotton) were able to carry up to 9×10(5) cfu/g aerobic bacteria, 3.4×10(4) cfu/g anaerobic bacteria and 6.3×10(4) cfu/g of fungi, including pathogenic strains classified by Directive 2000/54/EC in hazard group 2., Conclusions: As plant and animal fibers are contaminated with a significant number of microorganisms, including pathogens, all of them should be mechanically eliminated from the environment. In factories, if the manufacturing process allows, they should be replaced by synthetic or semi-synthetic fibers. To avoid unwanted exposure to harmful microbial agents on fibers, the containment measures that efficiently limit their presence and dissemination in both occupational and non-occupational environments should be introduced., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

Background: Cleaning services are carried out in almost all sectors and branches of industry. Due to the above, cleaners are exposed to various harmful biological agents, depending on the tasks performed and the commercial sector involved. The aim of this study was to assess the exposure of cleaning workers to biological agents based on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of airborne microflora., Material and Methods: A six-stage Andersen sampler was used to collect bioaerosols during the cleaning activities in different workplaces, including schools, offices, car services, healthy services and shops. Standard Petri dishes filled with blood trypticase soy agar and malt extract agar were used for bacterial and fungal sampling, respectively., Results: The bioaerosol concentration values obtained during testing of selected workposts of cleaners were lower than the Polish recommended threshold limit values for microorganisms concentrations in public service. The most prevalent bacterial species in studied places were Gram-positive cocci (mainly of genera Micrococcus, Staphylococcus) and endospore-forming Gram-positive rods (mainly of genera Bacillus). Among the most common fungal species were those from genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. The size distribution analysis revealed that bioaerosols present in the air of workposts at shops, schools and car services may be responsible for nose and eye mucosa irritation and allergic reactions in the form of asthma or allergic inflammation in the cleaning workers., Conclusions: The study shows that occupational activities of cleaning workers are associated with exposure to airborne biological agents classified into risk groups, 1. and 2., according to their level of infection risk, posing respiratory hazard., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

Background: Indoor air is contaminated with microorganisms coming from both the atmospheric air and sources present in premises. The aim of this study was to analyze the concentrations of biological agents in office buildings, dependending on ventilation/air conditioning system and season., Materials and Methods: The study covered office buildings (different in the system of ventila-tion/air conditioning). Air samples for assessing the levels of inhalable dust, endotoxins and (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans, were taken at the selected stationary points of each building during summer and winter. The air was sampled for 6 h, using portable sets consisting of the GilAir 5 pump and the head filled with a filter of fiber glass. The samples for the presence of airborne bacteria and fungi were collected twice during the day using the impaction method., Results: Average concentrations of inhalable dust, bacteria, fungi, endotoxins and (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans in office premises were 0.09 mg/m3, 6.00 x 10(2) cfu/m3, 4.59 x 10(1) cfu/m3, 0.42 ng/m3 and 3.91 ng/m3, respectively. Higher concentrations of the investigated agents were found in summer. In premises with air conditioning concentrations of airborne fungi, (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans and inhalable dust were significantly lower in winter. In summer the trend was reverse except for (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans., Conclusions: Concentrations of biological agents were affected by the season and the presence of air conditioning. Concentrations of inhalable dust, bacteria, fungi, endotoxins and (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans, observed inside the office buildings, were significantly higher in summer than in winter. The presence of the air conditioning system modified in various ways the levels of biological agents. Its influence was greater on the concentration of fungi and (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans than on that of bacteria and endotoxins.

Background: In this paper the exposure assessment to airborne biohazards (organic dust, microorganisms, endotoxins and ((1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucans) as well as to ammonia and hydrogen sulfide among CAFO (swine farms) workers is presented., Materials and Methods: Occupational exposure assessment was carried out on 30 swine farms. Personal dosimetry was carried out among 90 swine farm workers to assess the exposure to organic dust, endotoxins and glucans. Concentrations of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide were measured using Draeger pipes. Endotoxins were assayed with the LAL test in a kinetic, chromogenic version and ((1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucans with the Glucatell test in a kinetic version., Results: Concentrations of inhalable dust ranged from 0.16 to 37.2 mg/m3, with AM = 3.65 mg/m3, whereas AM for respirable fraction was 0.39 mg/m3 with the range from zero to 4.28 mg/m3. Mean concentration of culturable bacteria was 4.79 x 10 (5) jtk/m3, and fungi concentration was ten times lower - 1.55 x 10(4) jtk/m3. Exposure to endotoxins with high degree of differentiation ranged from 95 to 147 885 EU/m3 in inhalable and from 5.5 to 18 708 EU/m3 in respirable fractions. Glucan concentrations ranged from 6 to > 5200 ng/m3 in unhalable and from 1 to 800 ng/m3 in respirable fraction. Ammonia concentrations in the workplace air ranged from 1.78 mg/m3 (2.50 ppm) to 30.1 mg/m3 (42.4 ppm). Hydrogen sulfide did not exceed the level of 4.1 mg/m3., Conclusion: Work conditions found in CAFOs may induce adverse effects on workers' respiratory system and should be considered as an important harmful agent. The protection of workers respiratory airways should be recommended.

Background: The quantitative assessment and qualitative identification of moulds at workplaces in wastewater treatment plants were the aim of the study., Materials and Methods: The study was carried out in four wastewater treatment plants, where 15 stationary points were selected according to mechanical, biological and sewage sludge treatment processes. In addition, background level samples from the city area were also collected. Bioaerosols were sampled with use of a Burkard Aerosol Sampler and directly put on Malt Extract Agar plates. Identification of moulds was based on morphological properties described in the professional literature., Results: The identified concentrations of moulds were low and ranged between 0.11 and 16.75 x 10(2) cfu/m3. The highest mean levels of fungal microflora were found during sewage sludge treatment processes. In total, there were 65 fungal isolates, of which 80% were found in wastewater treatment plants. In bioaerosol samples of the occupational origin, the highest (40%) amount of isolates originated from sewage sludge treatment processes and the lowest (25%) from biological treatment stages. In wastewater treatment plants, moulds of Aspergillus genus predominated and represented nearly 35% of all identified fungi. Comparing to background levels, the content of this genus was almost 4.5 times higher. Pathogenic Aspergillus fumigatus was found at all stages of wastewater treatment and Trichophyton genus at the stage of mechanical treatment. Moreover, there were numerous moulds of Mucor, Penicillium and Alternaria genera. In background samples moulds of Penicillium genus predominated and no pathogenic species were found., Conclusions: The obtained results reveal that the sewage sludge is the main source of mould emission into the air at workplaces in wastewater treatment plants. On account of the presence of moulds with the evidenced infectious and allergic activity it is suggested that personal protective equipment should be used by employees.

Mycotoxins are a quite numerous group of substances released as metabolites by molds, which badly affect human and animal health. Their impact on organisms resulting from alimentary exposure is well recognized, but the mechanisms by which they exert their health effects after inhalation exposure are still poorly investigated. The aim of this work was to review the literature concerning the outcomes of occupational exposure to mycotoxins present in the work environment. The author discusses the major mycotoxin classes, their chemical structure, some physicochemical properties and biological activity properties. This paper summarizes the results of investigations on the impact of occupational exposure to molds present in the workplace air in various branches of industry. Problems of identifying the mechanism of health effects exerted due inhalation exposure to mycotoxins are also discussed. This review shows that there is lack of good hygiene standards and legislation regulating the presence of these compounds in the workplace air. These is due to insufficient number of analyses aimed at estimating short-term inhalation exposure to mycotoxins and lack of monitoring of long-term exposure and its health effects. The authors concludes that occupational exposure to mycotoxins and their role in the development of pathological changes in the respiratory system require further investigations.

Background: The aim of the study was to quantitatively and qualitatively identify moulds occurring in the air of selected office rooms., Material and Methods: The study was conducted in the wintertime inside four office rooms with moisture trace and one control room. To assess mycological contamination of the air, triple samples were directly collected on Petri dishes (Malt Extract Agar medium) using a Burkard air sampler. Qualitative evaluation of moulds was based on the microscopic view and morphological features of colonies., Results: Total number of moulds determined in the air of office rooms did not exceed the level of 4 x 10(2) cfu/m3. The highest concentration of moulds (3.44 x 10(2) cfu/m3) was found in the room that was also used as an archive. It was over tenfold higher than in the control room (0.33 x 10(2) cfu/m3). The qualitative analysis of moulds showed the presence of 15 species. Some of them, including Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus versicolor, Aspergillus ochraceus, Cladosporium spp., Penicillium spp. and Alternaria spp., are recognized as potential health hazards to workers due to the production of mycotoxins and allergic reactions., Conclusions: The archive was the only room, where concentration of moulds slightly exceeded the reference value. To protect the health of workers who perform their duties in this place, the documents, which are an ideal place of mould growth, should be moved to a separate room. Respiratory complaints reported by workers could be associated with concentrations and species of moulds found in the office rooms under study.

Background: The purpose of the study was to evaluate exposure to bioaerosols among sewer workers., Materials and Methods: The study was carried out in the summertime, based on the standard PN-EN 13098. Air samples were collected on gelatine filters at three stationary sites: inside the sewer, next to the sewer manhole during under pressure cleaning and at effluent discharge point. In collected samples the qualitative and quantitative analysis of bacteria and fungi were performed., Results: Bacteria and fungi concentrations were at low levels. The highest concentration of bacteria (about 5.0 x 10(2) cfu/m3) was found inside the sewer and of fungi (about 1.0 x 10(2) cfu/m3) at effluent discharge point. Among all determined microorganisms Gram-positive bacteria were predominated, especially Staphylococcus lentus. Others bacteria there were also found, like rod-shaped of the genus Bacillus and Enterococcus faecalis. The diversification of Gram-negative bacteria was small. Among fungi there were determined representatives of two genera Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp., including species Aspergillus fumigatus., Conclusions: According to the law in force among all determined microorganisms only bacteria Enterococcus faecalis (Enterococcus spp.) and mould Aspergillus fumigatus are classified as harmful biological agents (occupational risk group 2). It is suggested using by employees personal protective equipment, especially for respiratory airways and skin protection and also keeping the rules of individual hygiene.

Objectives: The aim of the study was to assess the microbiological air quality at the selected municipal waste landfills., Materials and Methods: The study was conducted during the summer at two municipal landfills. Air samples were collected on agar plates. The evaluation was based on the concentration levels of airborne bacteria and fungi and the identification of isolated strains., Results: The total number of bacteria and fungi did not exceed the level of 10(3) cfu/m3. The highest concentrations of bacteria in air were observed during unloading, disposing and compacting of municipal wastes (landfill 1 - 6,1 x 10(3) cfu/ml, landfill 2 - 5,4 x 10(2) cfu/m3). The highest concentrations of fungi in air were observed at filled up parts of the landfills (landfill 1 - 4,8 x 10(2) cfu/m3, landfill 2 - 1,2 x 10(3) cfu/m3). The qualitative analysis of the air samples indicated the presence of 21 bacterial and fungi. Among of them bacteria Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Proteus mirabilis and fungi Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans are classified as harmful biological agents., Conclusions: The total number of bacteria and fungi in air samples collected at the selected municipal waste landfills did not exceed the reference values. The concentration levels of bioaerosols are diversified according to the size of the landfill, the total number of accumulated wastes and the level of area usage. It is suggested using by municipal waste workers personal protective equipment, especially for respiratory airways and skin and also keeping the rules of individual hygiene.

Background: The purpose of the study was to evaluate exposure to biological and chemical agents in a sewage treatment plant., Materials and Methods: Sampling was carried out in the summer and wintertime at the morning workshift. Ninety-nine sewage workers taking part in the study were divided into four occupational subgroups: mechanical treatment, biological treatment, sewage sludge treatment, and operation control workers. Exposure to: H2S, SO2, Pb, Cd, Cr3+, Cr6+, endotoxins, (1 --> 3)-beta-D glucans, and microorganisms was evaluated with special identification of Gram-negative rods., Results: The concentrations of dust containing heavy metals and concentrations of gases from all stations did not exceed MAC values. Concentrations of endotoxins ranged from 0.08 to 223 ng/m3, and glucans from 0.00 to 163 ng/m3. The highest concentrations were found among sewage sludge treatment workers, in the summertime (geometric mean value = 37 ng/m3). In the winter, concentrations were almost ten times lower. Over sixty percent of all results exceeded the proposed reference value for airborne endotoxins (10 ng/m3). Concentrations of airborne bacteria in the sewage plant were at low level (10(2)( cfu/m3), except the sludge lagoon and sludge concentration building, where the results exceeded the proposed reference value for mesophilic bacteria (10(5) cfu/m3) "Environmental" bacteria (Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Shewanella) predominated in the samples. There were also found enterobacteria genus (Enterococcus, family Enterobacteriaceae)--good indicators of hygienic cleanliness of the air., Conclusions: The study proved that the exposure varied and depended on the stage of sewage treatment. The sewage sludge treatment process was characterized by the highest emission of bioaerosols. All microorganisms found in the sewage plant belong to the second occupational risk group, under the ordinance of the Ministry of Health.

Chemical and biological hazards and health effects of exposure to some selected agents on the workers of municipal wastewater treatment plants are reported. This issue has not as yet been thoroughly analyzed in Poland. The workers of wastewater treatment plants are exposed to: heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), volatile organic matter, hydrogen sulfide, organic agents, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, organic-produced endotoxins and glucans. The most frequent disorders reported by the wastewater--treatment workers comprise respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, ocular and dermal irritations, headache and discomfort. The assessment of hygienic conditions at individual workplaces is difficult because of lack of hygiene standards for airborne microorganisms and endotoxins. Up to now, the exposure of workers employed in municipal wastewater treatment plants has not been assessed in Poland. The number of the affected workers is estimated at 11,000-19,000 people.