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In the current age, one of the most important challenges of the international community is the phenomenon of bioterrorism, which has been used by some non-state actors in addition to states. Given the destructive effects and irreparable damage that the bioterrorist actions of non-state actors have on human life, the present article examines the legal aspects of this issue. In this regard, in the first part of the article, the concept of non-states actors and their approach to the use of biological weapons were explained. In the second part, the approach of the international law system to the use of biological weapons by non-state actors is examined, and finally in the third part, the approach of governments regarding the bioterrorist actions of non-state actors and their responsibilities in this field are explained. The findings of this article indicate that some non-state actors tend to use biological weapons to commit terrorist acts for a variety of reasons. Although several international instruments on terrorism and bioterrorism have been adopted so far, these instruments have not been able to prevent the bioterrorist activities of these groups. In addition, many governments in their domestic legal systems do not have adequate legal mechanisms to counter the bioterrorist activities of non-state actors, or for economic and political reasons are reluctant to counter the bioterrorist activities of these groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the political history of Islam and Iran, bioterrorism was utilized as a weapon to eliminate rivals and achieve political and military objectives. This article aims to investigate the poisoning methods, uses of poison as well as measures to prevent it in the political-militarily arena of Islamic civilization. The results show the poisoning of political figures, religious and military leaders as well as changing the results of wars by the biological assassination of commanders and the poisoning of troops in military conflicts and political challenges were tactics those in power used. This research tries to examine ways of using poison as a biological weapon in major historical events of Islam and also to analyze the way of employing this method as the easiest way to eliminate military and political commanders and to change the outcomes of wars and political events to achieve political and military goals. The results additionally indicate that bioterrorism had important effects in key political and military periods in the history of Islam, contributing to changes in the fate of many events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Telehealth is one of the technologies that can help us in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases caused by bioterrorism. This research aims to introduce the applications of this tool and examine its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in bioterrorist attacks. Methods: We searched in Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar from 2001 to 2021. By applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria and checking the title, abstract, and full text, we selected articles to enter the analysis. Finally, we extracted and saved data based on the Excel form. Results: A total of articles were retrieved through the search, and 15 studies remained for final analysis. Based on the Results, the multiple roles of telehealth were included in two clinical and managerial categories. Also, SWOT analysis showed that practical tools in bioterrorism have more strengths than weaknesses. Early identification of bioterrorism attacks and control of their spread is one of the significant strengths of this field. Also, one of its considerable weaknesses is the incompatibility of these systems. Conclusion: Considering the many applications of telehealth and the positive impact of this tool during bioterrorism incidents, its use is suggested by various organizations, especially the Red Crescent and military organizations. But considering the weaknesses and threats like the lack of appropriate technical, organizational, legal, and insurance infrastructure and security and confidentiality issues, it is necessary to measure to deal with these cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deliberate use of biological agents as a weapon in terrorist activities is called bioterrorism. Bioterrorism, directly targets human rights, endangers global health and security and terrible threat to humanity. The purpose of this paper, using a descriptive-analytical method, is to introduce bioterrorism, definebiological weapons, and state that these weapons are considered mass destruction weapons according to their characteristics and effects on living things and the environment. Also, classification, ways to fight and legal approach to legalization of these weapons in international law have been explained. Since, one of the main concerns of authorities and international organizations is to ensure global health and security and the purpose of international law is to control and prohibit the use of such weapons. But many of the solutions offered by these organizations have not been successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic.

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to safe and sustainable water is one of the most urgent needs of citizens in all societies, particularly large cities and metropolises, and any disruption to the functioning of water infrastructure in cities, poses immediate and serious threat to citizens' security and can become a national security issue. Terrorist acts can take many different forms and means. One of the most dangerous types of terrorism is "bioterrorism" and the use of toxic and biological substances to contaminate water supply facilities, such as water resources, treatment plants and distribution networks, which can adversely affect the health and well-being of the community and make a crisis.The results show that bioterrorism can contaminate various elements of urban water infrastructure in the supply, treatment, and transmission through lethal and pathogenic bacteria and toxins, such as anthrax, cholera, typhoid, botulinum, etc. The vulnerability and likelihood of bioterrorism attacks in each element of the water resources infrastructure were also evaluated and it was determined that there was a difference between the vulnerability. The results show the likelihood of bioterrorism attacks in different parts of the urban water infrastructure. Thus, based on the "vulnerability", among different sections of the water infrastructure, the "distribution network" of urban water is at a greater risk and based on the "likelihood of threat" the "water supply" is at a great risk.

Background: As an emerging interdisciplinary area of science with a multitude of potential facilities and applications, synthetic biology integrates different disciplines with one another ranging from basic science to engineering. This interdisciplinary branch therefore encompasses sciences that require specific development and ethical approaches. Materials and Methods: Science management principles were used to design the framework of discrete ethical issues of synthetic biology in terms of the creation, storage, distribution and application of synthetic biology. Results: There is a debate over whether or not the artificial organisms created as living machines deserve ethical considerations. The free storage of knowledge as open libraries about manufacturing the parts, devices and biological systems is another issue. In this respect, technological gap and justice could also be debated. Biosafety and biosecurity are also important in applying synthetic biology, as this science is increasingly facing the community of garage biologists. In biosecurity, creating organisms with dual applications raises ethical issues regarding bioterrorism. Conclusion: The complexity and broad scope of ethical issues regarding the application of synthetic biology products require that distinct ethical principles be developed in collaboration with experts in ethics and law and futurists in discourse with the civil community.

Objective:Recent advances in the field of biological sciences, on the one hand, and misuse of the results of scientific research by terrorist groups, on the other hand, have caused microbial agents to become fatal weapons that simultaneously threaten national security and public health of the societies. Low costs, easy access and provision, immediate effect, rapid expansion and their extremely high effect on the spread of sense of insecurity has made these types of terrorist acts attractive to some terrorist groups. Methods: This research uses descriptive - analytical method and refers to valid sources to study the biological agents that may be used by terrorists. It also tries to specify the most important methods of transmission of these agents and understand the effects of bioterrorist attacks on the security and health of citizens. Results: The results of the research indicate that bioterrorism is more dangerous than other types of terrorism for threatening the life of citizens and ordinary people due to the attractions of biological materials for terrorists. Some of these characteristics and attractions include difficulty of identifying the biological agents, sufficiency of a small amount of biological agents for a bioterrorist attack, easier spread of biological agents, difficulty of defense against biological agents, possibility of making, production, warehousing and storage of biological weapons in a small and simple place, and having incubation period. Conclusion: Due to these characteristics, biological agents have become attractive temptations for terrorists. They can use biological agents for a terrorist attack on urban infrastructure in sectors of water, food, public services, etc. and threaten the lives of the citizens. In spite of the various protective measures of the governments, most people and citizens are vulnerable to this kind of terrorism. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully examine the extent and the special ways of vulnerability of people and infrastructure to these types of attacks and to formulate security attachments for prevention of such attacks. This is especially true in respect of Iran that is more vulnerable to such attacks.

Background: As an emerging interdisciplinary area of science with a multitude of potential facilities and applications, synthetic biology integrates different disciplines with one another ranging from basic science to engineering. This interdisciplinary branch therefore encompasses sciences that require specific development and ethical approaches. Materials and Methods: Science management principles were used to design the framework of discrete ethical issues of synthetic biology in terms of the creation, storage, distribution and application of synthetic biology. Results: There is a debate over whether or not the artificial organisms created as living machines deserve ethical considerations. The free storage of knowledge as open libraries about manufacturing the parts, devices and biological systems is another issue. In this respect, technological gap and justice could also be debated. Biosafety and biosecurity are also important in applying synthetic biology, as this science is increasingly facing the community of garage biologists. In biosecurity, creating organisms with dual applications raises ethical issues regarding bioterrorism. Conclusion: The complexity and broad scope of ethical issues regarding the application of synthetic biology products require that distinct ethical principles be developed in collaboration with experts in ethics and law and futurists in discourse with the civil community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Biological events are one of the main threats of the present century. The aim of this study was to survey knowledge and performance of Basij Medical Community members of West Azerbaijan in response to the biological events in 2016- 2017. Materials and Methods: In this descriptive study, knowledge and preparedness of 142 members of the Basij Medical Community in West Azerbaijan province in response to biological events were evaluated using a reasercher made questionnaire during 2016-2017. The results were reported as descriptive statistics (number, percentage, mean and standard deviation). Results: 110 participants (77.4%) had low knowledge regarding biological events. The highest level of knowledge with 97 participants (68.3%) was related to required instructions in dealing with biologic incidents with large casualties. Conclusion: The results of the present study showed a low knowledge of the members of Basij Medical Community in confronting the biological incidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioterrorism is defined as any terrorist action of intentional release or dissemination of highly pathogenic biological agents, including a variety of microorganisms or biological toxins. With the growing threat of terrorism, is necessary that the potential danger of various microorganisms – as a powerful tool of aggression and threat- to be taken seriously. This review tries to explain the concept of biological weapons and their historical development process with an emphasis on efforts to control the proliferation of these types of weapons over the last century. Potential impact of infectious diseases on people and armed forces was known from since 600 BC. Using the victims of the plague as a weapon in medieval warfare and spread of smallpox as a weapon during the war against the Indians when initially America was discovered, the development of biological weapons during the World War I, World War II and the Cold War, and even since the beginning of the third millennium, all show the strategic importance of pathogenic microorganisms as a deterrent power for the superiority of some governments and cults. Historical attempts to use infectious diseases as biological weapons reveal that the distinction between a natural outbreak of an infectious disease and that of a deliberate biological attack is very difficult. Abusing this characteristic of infectious diseases has made it possible for the purposes of superiority. International agreements to control the development of biological weapons, such as “the 1925 Geneva Protocol” and “the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Biological and Toxic Weapons” have not been able to control the development and using of biological warfare. The current paper is a classic review (Overview) article aiming at increasing the knowledge and awareness of people especially of health authorities and government officials.

Introduction: Bioterrorism, as a major health problem, has received lots of attention in recent years. To date, the effect of education on knowledge and attitude of students regarding bioterrorism has not been evaluated in Iran. Therefore, this study aimed to determine how education affects knowledge and attitude of biological sciences students about bioterrorism. Methods: The present interventional before-after study was carried out on the students of different branches of biological sciences. The students’ level of knowledge on nature of bioterrorism and its causatives, diagnosing bioterrorism agents, management at the time of biological and bioterrorist attacks, and tendency to participate in relief at these events were evaluated before and after training using a pre-designed checklist. Then the effect of education on the students’ knowledge and attitude was evaluated based on their sex. Results: 120 students were included (60% female; mean age 21 ± 3.2 years). The knowledge score was not significantly different between female and male students before educational intervention (p > 0.05). After education, the knowledge score raised significantly in the 4 areas of bioterrorism nature (p < 0.0001), causative factors (p < 0.0001), diagnosing bioterrorism agents (p < 0.0001), and management at the time of bioterrorist attacks (p < 0.0001) in female participants, but not in male students (p > 0.05). In addition, after education both male and female participants showed greater tendency to work and do research in the field of bioterrorism (p < 0.0001) but the increase was more significant in females (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: Educational intervention led to an improvement in female participants’ knowledge regarding bioterrorism nature, causative factors, diagnosing bioterrorism agents, and management at the time of bioterrorist attacks. Yet, the low level of knowledge and tendency of the students indicates the need for more education in this field.

A biological attack can begin silently and insidiously. Instead of police, fire and emergency medical services rushing to a clearly apparent incident scene, medical facilities may be the first to see victims of a bioterrorism attack. In this study we proposed a surveillance system to detect, and respond to emergency health threats caused by bioterrorism. We recommended new models of disaster management for effective responding plan in bioterrorism.

Background and Objective: Biological weapons, like other weapons of mass destruction such as chemical, nuclear and radiological are very dangerous. In recent years, they are employed in biotterrorist attacks by many countries because of some properties such as: the ability to make massive injury, having latent period, creating a prolonged illness, potential outbreaks and epidemics and more important because of having nonspecific symptoms and difficulty in diagnosing. Material and Methods: The objective of this study was to describe the role of microbiology laboratories and their experts in the interventions of bio-passive defense. In this study, we use CDC, Medline, Google Scholar, Pubmed and World Health Organization (WHO). Result: Detection of biological agents is difficult and sometimes impossible due to features such as lack of odor, color and other physical characteristics. The most important measures for defense against biological agents are rapid detection and intervention. Thus, the laboratories should highly be equipped and the personnel be extremely sophisticated to deal with the crisis. Conclusion: Regarding the presence of highly advanced molecular procedures, Microbiology laboratories have to be updated to deal with the potential threats .in addition, the Laboratories professionals must be trained for the latest guidelines and specific diagnostic techniques to work with biological agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smallpox is a serious infectious disease to have ever afflicted mankind. Smallpox is caused by variola virus, which belongs to a family of viruses known as poxviridae. Pox viruses are large DNA viruses which are 200-400 nm. The smallpox prodrome is characterized by the sudden on-set of high fever (38.5°C-40.5°C) and malaise 10 to 14 days after exposure. As populations grew and migrated, the disease spread across the globe, killing millions of people and shaping the course of history. Since 1978, no cases of smallpox have been reported to the World Health Organization from anywhere in the world, the last case had an onset of rash in 1977 in Somalia. However, a total of 2 years of effective surveillance must elapse before this last endemic area can be confirmed to be smallpox-free. The objective of this study was to describe a public-health response to smallpox as using for bioterrorism. In this study, we use Google Scholar, Med line, CDC, site of Ministry of Health and Medical Education and World Health Organization. Smallpox has a high mortality rate and can spread through aerosols and because the population is highly susceptible to the infection. The severity of variola, which includes variola major and variola minor, is related to the virulence of the infecting strains. The case fatality is about 1% for the minor form and up to 45% for the major that two less common clinical forms are the hemorrhagic and flat-type. Smallpox has a high mortality rate and can spread through aerosols, and immunity in the population is low. An outbreak of smallpox will be controlled through surveillance, containment, vaccination, and isolation of cases. Smallpox was eradicated before the development of modern antiviral drugs. Treatment is supportive as to the attention to treatment of bacterial super infection. Death from smallpox is usually the result of severe toxemia, septic shock or disseminated intravascular coagulation. There is great concern that smallpox is an excellent candidate for use as a terrorist weapon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Salmonella typhi, Bacillus anthracis, and Yersinia pestis are potent human pathogenic bacteria that cause typhoid fever, anthrax, and plague,respectively. The classic microbiological methods for detection and identification of these agents are laborious and time consuming.Therefore, developing an accurate method for rapid detection of these potent human pathogens is important, especially due to their potential use as Bioterrorism agents. We have designed a new rapid molecular detection method by using multiplex PCR in a single reaction. Materials and Methods: PCR was carried out using specific primers for the virulence factor of S. typhi, hp and invA, B. anthracis virulence factors, chr and pa, and Y. pestis toxin, pla. The primer sets were tested for cross reactivity with individual DNA strains and mixtures in a multiplex PCR format. For determination of sensitivity of the method, we used colony counting and genomic DNA dilution. Results: Theresult with standard strains revealed that primers are specific for each strain as they have successfully amplified the desire products. The sensitivity analysis showed a 1-10 CFU and 1-10 copies of the genomes. In this respect, the accuracy of the result was checked by sequencing of the 1083-bp PCR products, except for anthrax, which was determined by enzymatic digestion. Conclusion: We have found a rapid, specific, sensitive, and a non-expensive molecular method for detection of three potent human pathogens. This finding provide an efficient diagnostic tool to determine these bacteria in bioterrorism samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]