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A surprisingly large number of sea snail species are venomous. Cone snail venoms are produced in a lengthy tubular duct from a complex venom gland and form a cocktail of many toxins, particularly conotoxins which have high potency and specificity for their target specific receptors. They inhibit various channels, neuromuscular receptors or hormones of the victim, and interfere in the transmitted signals of the prey, or dissuade predators. Cone snails have an amazing ability to quickly convert between two different types of defense-evoked and predation-evoked venoms in response to defensive or predatory stimuli. Various conotoxins and conopeptides such as α-conotoxins, σ-conotoxins, ω-conotoxins, μ-conotoxins, ψ-conotoxins, τ-conotoxins, δ-conotoxins, κ-conotoxins and conkunitzins, conantokins, contryphans, Ac1 conotoxins, conoinsulins, granulin-like conotoxins from conoides; augerpeptides derived from the venom peptide family Terebridae; turripeptides from the venom peptide family Turridae; crassipeptides venom peptides from Crassispirids; clathurellipeptides from venomous micro-conoides Clathurellidae, and other toxins such as RFamide peptides and endogenous neuropeptide-like peptides such as conopressins, as well as contulakins have been found in cone snail venoms, which have demonstrated remarkable biological and pharmacological functions. Given the approval of some conotoxins, such as the analgesic medication ziconitide (Prialt®) in clinical trials as well as their biomedical potential, current research has focused on these toxins. The use of integrated venomics approaches has dramatically accelerated the detection of conotoxin sequences. It is anticipated that a better understanding and identification of conotoxins and other toxins derived from other sea snails will lead to their use for the treatment of diseases to which humans have succumbed.

Background: Brittle stars can produce well-known toxins responsible for various of their biological activities in addition to their physical defense. The purpose of this study was to identify secondary metabolites and assess the anticholinesterase activities of the crude venom of the Persian Gulf Ophiocoma erinaceous (brittle star) in vitro and in silico due to the abundance of this marine life on the Persian Gulf coasts and with knowledge of their numerous biological effects. Materials and Methods: In this study, after the lyophilization of the brittle star sample, an LD50 test, a test of cholinesterase inhibitory activities, identification of the secondary metabolites, and their in-silico evaluations were performed by, respectively, Spearman-Karber, the Ellman spectroscopic method, Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and computational docking method. Results: According to the results, the LD50 value of the sample was 6.04±0.13 (mg/kg). The IC50 values related to their Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase were 37.925 ±0.055 and 5.388±0.02 (μg/ml), respectively, compared to the galantamine standard. The GC-MS analysis of the sample showed 25 bioactive chemical compositions with different structures, such as alkaloids, terpenes, and steroids. The computational results of the compounds also confirmed the experimental results. Among these, the alkaloidal compound BS4, had the highest affinity for both enzymes. Conclusion: As for toxicity potency, the brittle star crude venom sample was classified in the highly toxic category. The GC analysis of the crude venom showed various bioactive secondary metabolites with different chemical structures. The experimental and computational results on the anticholinesterase activities of the sample showed that the venom acts as a significant inhibitor of both enzymes. Further studies are required to determine whether the compound BS4 could be a candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A surprisingly large number of sea snail species are venomous. Cone snail venoms are produced in a lengthy tubular duct from a complex venom gland and form a cocktail of many toxins, particularly conotoxins which have high potency and specificity for their target specific receptors. They inhibit various channels, neuromuscular receptors or hormones of the victim, and interfere in the transmitted signals of the prey, or dissuade predators. Cone snails have an amazing ability to quickly convert between two different types of defense-evoked and predation-evoked venoms in response to defensive or predatory stimuli. Various conotoxins and conopeptides such as α-conotoxins, σ-conotoxins, ω-conotoxins, μ-conotoxins, ψ-conotoxins, τ-conotoxins, δ-conotoxins, κ-conotoxins and conkunitzins, conantokins, contryphans, Ac1 conotoxins, conoinsulins, granulin-like conotoxins from conoides; augerpeptides derived from the venom peptide family Terebridae; turripeptides from the venom peptide family Turridae; crassipeptides venom peptides from Crassispirids; clathurellipeptides from venomous micro-conoides Clathurellidae, and other toxins such as RFamide peptides and endogenous neuropeptide-like peptides such as conopressins, as well as contulakins have been found in cone snail venoms, which have demonstrated remarkable biological and pharmacological functions. Given the approval of some conotoxins, such as the analgesic medication ziconitide (Prialt®) in clinical trials as well as their biomedical potential, current research has focused on these toxins. The use of integrated venomics approaches has dramatically accelerated the detection of conotoxin sequences. It is anticipated that a better understanding and identification of conotoxins and other toxins derived from other sea snails will lead to their use for the treatment of diseases to which humans have succumbed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Stonefish is believed to be the most venomous, dangerous, and even fatal fish to human and animals that currently known in the worldwide. Their venom apparatus involve 12-13 dorsal ‘hypodermic’, 2 pelvic, and 3 anal spines, which contain venom, excepting the ornate pectoral spines that are not venomous. Venom with some activities contains a mixture of enzyme and non-enzyme proteins, like stonustoxin, trachynilysin, verrucotoxin and Neo verrucotoxin. They act on receptors and ion channels, with various mechanisms; and cause marked local and systemic complications in envenomed animals. Most typical envenomation management protocols consist of initial resuscitation, symptomatic relief with hot water (45ºC) therapy, antivenom for systemic or severe local signs, and surgical removal of spines or other foreign bodies. There were a lot of recommends about use of hot water immersion, early on-site, as a first aid measure. Antibiotics are proposed for deep puncture injuries, due to the high incidence of ulceration, necrosis, and secondary infections. As in everything else, prevention is better than cure; and must wear shoes and step with judgment in stonefish aqueous territories! [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The sea urchins are classified in the echinoderms category because of their spiny skin. Saponins are the major responsible metabolites for Echinodermata biological activities . As mentioned before, about 80 species of sea urchins are venomous for human. Their spine, pedicellariae, and some other organs such as gonads and coelomic fluids contain different toxins and bioactive compounds. This review study have evaluated toxinology and bioactive compounds from the extracts, and treatment management of these venomous animals. Results: Contractin A, echinochrome A, echinometrin, major yolk protein (MYP), centrocins (I, II(, cathepsin B/X, strongylostatins (I,II), vitellogenin, UT841 toxin, spinochrome, and pedoxin as the prosthetic group of peditoxin are the most important compounds obtained from these animals. Some people show poisoning symptoms following the ingestion of sea urchin gonads, especially during the breeding season. Some of these symptoms included allergies symptoms, as the first symptoms, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, epigastric distress, severe headache, swelling of the lips and mouth, salivation, abdominal pain and some systemic symptoms such as hypotension, numbness and weakness. The most injuries by sea urchin can cause by contact to spines, which can create the various complications such as granuloma, synovitis, arthritis, edema, hyperkeratosis and even neuroma. Injuries by pedicellaria may cause severe pain, local edema, bleeding, lethargy, weakness, tingling, joint pain, aphonia, dizziness, syncope, general muscle paralysis, respiratory distress, hypotension and, infrequently death. After the injury by sea urchin, removing the spines and pedicellariae should be done to minimize the contact with the venom source, and subsequently the management of wounds and poisoning symptoms, as quickly as possible. Conclusion: The venoms of some sea urchins have toxins and bioactive molecules that produce toxicity effects on their victims by a variety of mechanisms. Despite the various studies in toxinology field, on these animals, the comprehensive studies that led to the identification of pure toxins from their crude venoms are handful and unfinished and it is important to do further studies on this field, in the future.

Background: Sea snakes belong to Hydrophiidae family mainly are found in tropical and subtropical waters of the world including the Persian Gulf. Their highly lethal venoms are more potent than snakes with terrestrial origin and contain complex mixtures of organic and inorganic bioactive substances, such as enzyme, and non-enzymatic proteins. There were limited studies on the venoms and toxins of sea snake; hence, the aim of this systematic review was to investigate the toxinological dimensions of sea snakes. Materials and Methods: In order to investigate of the toxins of sea snakes, the “Hydrophis schistosus toxin", "Hydrophis cyanocinctus toxin", " Hydrophis lapemoides toxin", "Hydrophis spiralis toxin", and "Lapemis curtus toxin " terms were searched separately, in "PubMed database", in 10/08/2016 which obtained 32, 9, 2, 2 and 4 papers, respectively. The "Hydrophis gracilis toxin" term had no any results. For the “Hydrophis gracilis" term, two studies were obtained. The first one related to the sea snakes phylogenetic characteristics and the second one shared with other search results and well-connected with the issue. Some papers were similar in different searches. Of these, those studies were selected that had direct relevance to the subject . Results: The main isolated toxins from different sea snakes venoms included three-finger toxin (3FTx (short chain neurotoxins isoforms: AAL54893, AAL54892, ABN54806; long chain neurotoxins isoforms: AAL54894, AAL54895, P68416 , ABN54805), pelamitoxin (P62388), phospholipase A2 (both the basic and acidic PLA2), two phospholipases A2 (PLA2-H1 and H2), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP), snake venom Zn2+-metalloproteinase (SVMP), L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), 5′-nucleotidase, Hydrophitoxins a, b and c, Hydrophis ornatus a, Hydrophis lapemoides a, PDGF and α- neurotoxins of rSN311, rSN316 and rSN285. Each toxin and protein family presents a wide range of pharmacological activities. Some of these neurotoxins were linked to acetylcholine receptors in the neuromuscular junctions. These toxins showed protease (gelatinase and caseinase) activities, and/or they produce the myonecrosis and biochemical and histopathological changes. Conclusion: There is scant variability in the venom composition in the same and different species of sea snakes. Our study revealed that there is a rather simple venom profile with an affinity towards a lethal mixture of high abundance of neurotoxins and PLA2s, and lower amounts of toxins such as CRISP, SVMP and LAAO.

Background: One of the venomous fishes of Persian Gulf is a type of stonefish called blackfin stonefish (Pseudosynanceia melanostigma) that is very poorly-known. This fish lives on the muddy bottoms of marine shallow waters and have venomous spines on its stone like body. The envenomation usually is happened by unwanted contact of human body to its body and the proteinic venom is injected into the skin. Upon the venom entrance to the body various symptoms and signs will occur that their intensity depends on the venom amount.The aim of study is the understanding of some pharmacological impacts of blackfin stonefish for future studies. Material and Methods: A total of 18 male laboratory rats were divided into three groups of control, second and third and envenomed by sub lethal doses (1/3 LD50 and ½ LD50) intravenously and the serum enzymes namely Creatine Phosphokinase, Lactate Dehydrogenase, Glutamate-Oxaloacetate Transaminase, Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase , Alkaline Phosphatase and Amylase, serum electrolytes namely Sodium. Potassium and Calcium and also complete blood cells of control and experimental rats were measured. Results: The serum enzymes levels, potassium and calcium levels and withe blood cells count in envenomed rats by blackfin stonefish crude venom in compare with control rats had significant increase while the haemoglobin level, red blood cells count and also serum sodium level had significant decrease (p

Abstract The members of Scorpaenidae family, including stonefish (genus Synanceja) are among the most dangerous and venomous fishes in the word that inhibit in the tropical shallow waters. The toxinology of the venom of stonefish (genus Synanceja) showed that it is a mixture of proteins, containing several enzymes like hyaluronidase. The crude venom can produce cytolytic, hemolytic, neurotoxic and hypotensive effects in vivo. Immediate increasing intensive pain, local ischemia followed by cyanosis, edema and swelling are the local clinical presentations. Systemic manifestations are not uncommon. Hot water immersion of the injured limb, a local anesthetic agent without adrenaline, infiltrated into and around the wound, debridement of the necrotic tissue and the prescription of prophylactic antibiotic are the main therapeutic measures. The administration of antivenom may be considered.

Background and aim: Continuous appearance of antibiotic resistance bacteria can cause significant complications and mortality. In this regard, tracing for new antimicrobial agents is of great significance. During the past decades, many studies have documented isolation of Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs) from different sources. These peptides which are responsible for hinnate immunity were purified from human, vertebrates, invertebrates, insects, venomous animals, and plants. This study aimed to extract antibacterial peptides from Iranian scorpion Hemiscorpius lepturus. Material and Methods: Venom was obtained by electric stimulation and its quality examined by protein electrophoresis. The venom peptides were purified using Gel filtration chromatography and subsequently with Reverse Phase- High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC). The peptide fractions were evaluated for antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. Inhibitory activity was determined by disk diffusion method. Result: Seven protein fractions were obtained from Sephadex-G50, among them only two fractions had peptides with less than 10 kDa. One FPLC purified fraction had anti-pseudomonas activity by disk diffusion method and was selected for further purification. Four major fractions were obtained by RP-HPLC ranging from 4 to 7 kDa. Subsequent tests showed that two fractions had bactericidal activity against pseudomonas. Conclusion: Natural compounds like antimicrobial peptides derived from venomous animals could be an effective solution to deal with multidrug-resistant pathogens. The results demonstrated that two peptide fractions of the scorpion venom had bactericidal activity against pseudomonas. This is the first report for isolation of antibacterial peptides from the Iranian scorpion Hemiscorpius lepturus.

Background: Jellyfishes belong to the phylum Cnidarians with a wide range of size, from 22 centimeters to 2.5 meters. Jellyfishes have a worldwide distribution comprising over nine thousands species that approximately, 100 species are dangerous for humans. The venoms of these organisms contain biomolecules with extensive activities which could be used as a source of novel drugs in the future. Materials and Methods: The PubMed data bank was searched for the term “Jellyfish”. A total of 1677 papers were found. These papers were divided into three categories: medical, biomedical and biotechnological fields. The medical category was further divided into three subcategories comprising systemic manifestations, cutaneous manifestations and treatments for the stings of jellyfishes. The biomedical category was further subdivided into genomics, proteomics, and biology of venoms, mechanisms of actions and products of biomedical significance. In this part of systematic review, the biomedical and biotechnological and biotechnological fields were evaluated. Results: The genomics and proteomics of 24 species of jellyfishes had been studied in details. The mechanisms of actions of the venoms of 23 species were under investigations. The hematologic (hemolytic effects), cardiotoxic, neurotoxic, dermonecrotic, immunologic and cytotoxic presentations for the venoms were reported. Similar clinical presentations could be produced by different species of jellyfishes with a vast of molecular action mechanisms. Bioactive molecules with cytotoxic, anticancer, antibacterial and antioxidant effects were isolated from the venoms. Conclusion: The venoms of jellyfishes have bioactive molecules that produce a variety of complex intracellular interactions. Hence, the studies on the venomics of jellyfishes and the mechanisms of actions of their venoms could progress the therapeutic interventions and promise novel marine drugs.

Background: The hemotoxic and neurotoxic factors of snake venoms is the main responsible for necrosis and tissue sloughing. Envenomations are common in rural areas in all provinces of Iran caused by snake species which causes local swelling, ecchymosis and alterations in blood profile in case of hemotoxic venom. In this study some in vivo and in vitro properties (Hemorrhagic, edematogenic and coagualant) of Iranian Vipera lebetina venom in addition to neutralizing capacity of pepsin derived Razi Institute polyvalent antivenin were assayed. Material and Methods: Escalating doses of Vipera lebetina venom dissolved in Normal saline (2.5-50 µg/ml) were injected (100µl) subcutaneously to dorsal area of rats (n=3) to investigate mean hemorrhagic amount after 24 hours.Groups of three mice were injected subcutaneously in the right foodpad with various amounts of venom (10-150µg).The left foodpad received the same amount (100µl) ofnormal saline alone (negative control) to evaluate the edematogenic property of this venom. To determine the coagulant activity, various amounts of venom dissolved in normal saline (50µl) were added to human plasma (200µl) and coagulation time was measured. Razi Institute antivenom was used for neutralization of all three measured biological parameters. Results: Mean hemorrhagic, procoagulant and edematous amounts (increasing 30% in hind paw edema) were 8.5, 1.1 and 70 microgram, respectively. Preincubation with polyvalent antibody (30 and 200 microliter) decreased hemorrhagic and procoagulant activity. Edematogenic property of this venom decreased significantly by incubation with antivenom (78% to 38% by incubation with 1000 microliter of polyvalent antivenom). Intra peritoneal injection of this remedy following envenomation had no effect in relieving symptoms. Myonecrotic effects were seen by intramuscular injection of Vipera lebetina venom in rats. Conclusion: Our study shows that Iranian antivenom could neutralize some in vivo and in vitro hazardous effects of envenomation by this snake like hemorrhagic, edematogenic and procoagulant properties that paves the way for separation and purification of multiple enzymes present in this venom to investigate the neutralizing capacity from Razi Institute polyvalent antivenom.

Background: Mesobuthus eupeus of the buthidae scorpion family is a native species in Iran (especially in Khuzestan region). The venom of scorpions, particularly buthidae family, is mainly composed of various bioactive components including various toxins. These toxins affect different ionic channels in excitable membranes of insects or mammals. In this study, the toxic fractions of Mesobuthus eupeus crude venom were isolated and those with higher toxicity were purified. Methods: Six toxic fractions from the crude venom of Mesobuthus eupeus were separated by gel filtration chromatography on sephadex G-50 in the equilibration with 20 mM ammonium acetate buffer, pH 4.7. Then the most toxic fractions were separated by cation exchange column chromatography and their purity was confirmed by electrophoresis. Results: The amount of 816 mg protein of soluble crude venom was applied on sephadex G-50 column chromatography, and 815 mg protein was yielded from the 6 separated fractions. From these fractions, fractions III and IV were toxic to mice. The LD50 values (Lethal Dose 50) of them were 0.40 and 0.46 mg/kg in mice, respectively. Fraction III was separated into 20 distinct subfractions. Through examining the toxicity of those subfractions to the mice, the toxic effect of subfractions III.14 to III.19 on mice was detected. From 250 mg protein of fraction III, applied on CM-sephadexC-25, 242.75 mg (97%) protein was attained in the separated subfractions. Conclusion: Three distinct toxins were obtained in pure form from the venom of Mesobuthus eupeus. The subfraction III.14.4 with an LD50 of 0.11 mg/kg in mice had the highest toxicity. The structural characteristics, physiological and pathological effects of these three purified toxin subfractions can be studied in the future studies.

Background: The sea urchins are classified in the echinoderms category because of their spiny skin. Saponins are the major responsible metabolites for Echinodermata biological activities . As mentioned before, about 80 species of sea urchins are venomous for human. Their spine, pedicellariae, and some other organs such as gonads and coelomic fluids contain different toxins and bioactive compounds. This review study have evaluated toxinology and bioactive compounds from the extracts, and treatment management of these venomous animals. Results: Contractin A, echinochrome A, echinometrin, major yolk protein (MYP), centrocins (I, II(, cathepsin B/X, strongylostatins (I,II), vitellogenin, UT841 toxin, spinochrome, and pedoxin as the prosthetic group of peditoxin are the most important compounds obtained from these animals. Some people show poisoning symptoms following the ingestion of sea urchin gonads, especially during the breeding season. Some of these symptoms included allergies symptoms, as the first symptoms, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, epigastric distress, severe headache, swelling of the lips and mouth, salivation, abdominal pain and some systemic symptoms such as hypotension, numbness and weakness. The most injuries by sea urchin can cause by contact to spines, which can create the various complications such as granuloma, synovitis, arthritis, edema, hyperkeratosis and even neuroma. Injuries by pedicellaria may cause severe pain, local edema, bleeding, lethargy, weakness, tingling, joint pain, aphonia, dizziness, syncope, general muscle paralysis, respiratory distress, hypotension and, infrequently death. After the injury by sea urchin, removing the spines and pedicellariae should be done to minimize the contact with the venom source, and subsequently the management of wounds and poisoning symptoms, as quickly as possible. Conclusion: The venoms of some sea urchins have toxins and bioactive molecules that produce toxicity effects on their victims by a variety of mechanisms. Despite the various studies in toxinology field, on these animals, the comprehensive studies that led to the identification of pure toxins from their crude venoms are handful and unfinished and it is important to do further studies on this field, in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sea snakes belong to Hydrophiidae family mainly are found in tropical and subtropical waters of the world including the Persian Gulf. Their highly lethal venoms are more potent than snakes with terrestrial origin and contain complex mixtures of organic and inorganic bioactive substances, such as enzyme, and non-enzymatic proteins. There were limited studies on the venoms and toxins of sea snake; hence, the aim of this systematic review was to investigate the toxinological dimensions of sea snakes. Materials and Methods: In order to investigate of the toxins of sea snakes, the “Hydrophis schistosus toxin", "Hydrophis cyanocinctus toxin", " Hydrophis lapemoides toxin", "Hydrophis spiralis toxin", and "Lapemis curtus toxin " terms were searched separately, in "PubMed database", in 10/08/2016 which obtained 32, 9, 2, 2 and 4 papers, respectively. The "Hydrophis gracilis toxin" term had no any results. For the “Hydrophis gracilis" term, two studies were obtained. The first one related to the sea snakes phylogenetic characteristics and the second one shared with other search results and well-connected with the issue. Some papers were similar in different searches. Of these, those studies were selected that had direct relevance to the subject . Results: The main isolated toxins from different sea snakes venoms included three-finger toxin (3FTx (short chain neurotoxins isoforms: AAL54893, AAL54892, ABN54806; long chain neurotoxins isoforms: AAL54894, AAL54895, P68416 , ABN54805), pelamitoxin (P62388), phospholipase A2 (both the basic and acidic PLA2), two phospholipases A2 (PLA2-H1 and H2), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP), snake venom Zn2+ -metalloproteinase (SVMP), L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), 5′-nucleotidase, Hydrophitoxins a, b and c, Hydrophis ornatus a, Hydrophis lapemoides a, PDGF and α- neurotoxins of rSN311, rSN316 and rSN285. Each toxin and protein family presents a wide range of pharmacological activities. Some of these neurotoxins were linked to acetylcholine receptors in the neuromuscular junctions. These toxins showed protease (gelatinase and caseinase) activities, and/or they produce the myonecrosis and biochemical and histopathological changes. Conclusion: There is scant variability in the venom composition in the same and different species of sea snakes. Our study revealed that there is a rather simple venom profile with an affinity towards a lethal mixture of high abundance of neurotoxins and PLA2s, and lower amounts of toxins such as CRISP, SVMP and LAAO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Aims: In recent years, the feasibility of hydrophilic nanoparticles has been broadly investigated for use in drug delivery and therapeutic systems. Due to the problems of traditional adjuvants, in this study Agkistrodon halys (Ah) Snake venom was loaded in chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs) in order to be used as an advanced adjuvant and antigen delivery system in antidote production industry. Methods: CS NPs containing Ah venom were prepared using ionic gelation and crosslinker method. In this study, polymer concentration, cross-linker concentration, particles size, particle size distribution, zeta potential, particles shape and surface characteristics, loading efficiency, loading capacity, and particles structure were optimized. Results: Optimum concentration achieved were chitosan 2mg/ml and cross-linker 1mg/ml and Agkistrodon Halys snake venum 500 mg/ml. Mean particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of of venom-loaded CS NPs were respectively 129 nm, 0.418 and 41 mV. The loading capacity (LC) and loading efficiency (LE) were 82±1.9 and 88±2.1, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of nanoparticles showed between chitosan and crosslinker. An initial burst release and second slow release up to 96 hours was observed. Conclusion: The obtained results suggested that venom-loaded CS NPs could be a suitable alternative to conventional adjuvant for manufacturing antivenom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objective: Snake venoms comprise complex mixtures of enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins and small organic compounds. Hyaluronidase is a constant factor in the venom of the snake and is known as a spreading factor. This factor facilitate spread of toxins that harm into the blood circulation system. In this paper, we describe the determination of hyaluronidase activity in Iranian Vipera lebetina venom. Subjects and Methods: Hyaluronidase activity was assayed turbidometrically on hyaluronic acid. Turbidity reducing activity was expressed as a percentage of the hydrolysed hyaluronate, taking the absorbance of a tube as 100% in which no enzyme was added. Bovin testis hyaluronidase was used as standard. Results: The optima PH and temperature for hyaluronidase maximum activity was 6 and 37 °C respectively. Conclusion: In conclusion the Iranian Vipera lebetina venom possessed considerable hyaluronidase activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is scant information about biological effects of the venoms of scorpions on different organs. Sixteen healthy native dogs aged about 2 years with average body weight of 18.5 kg of both sexes were selected for this study. Dogs were divided randomly into four equal groups (4 dogs in each group). Clinical signs are recorded and electrocardiogram was obtained for each dog prior to injection of venom. In the control group 1 ml of saline solution was injected and the amount of equal to 0.1, 0.05 and 0.01 mg of venom powder per kg bwt were dissolved in 1 ml saline solution and injected intradermal in the abdominal region or hind limb of each dog in the second, third, and four groups, respectively. Clinical signs and electorcardiogram of each dog were recorded at different time intervals (5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 360 and 24 hours after injection of venom). The results of ECGs, in group 1 and 2 indicated advanced sinus arrhythmia, sinus arrest, sinoatrial standstill, sever bradycardia and tachycardia, first and second degree heart block, premature ventricular contraction, sinus bradycardia and ventricular fibrillation. In group 3, partial sinus arrhythmia, sinus tachycardia, sinus arrest, advanced sinus arrhythmia and tachycardia were observed. In conclusion, the venom of the scorpion Odonthobuthus produces very changes in electrocardiogram by its effects on autonomic system and adrenal gland.

Background: One of the venomous fishes of Persian Gulf is a type of stonefish called blackfin stonefish (Pseudosynanceia melanostigma) that is very poorly-known. This fish lives on the muddy bottoms of marine shallow waters and have venomous spines on its stone like body. The envenomation usually is happened by unwanted contact of human body to its body and the proteinic venom is injected into the skin. Upon the venom entrance to the body various symptoms and signs will occur that their intensity depends on the venom amount. The aim of study is the understanding of some pharmacological impacts of blackfin stonefish for future studies. Material and Methods: A total of 18 male laboratory rats were divided into three groups of control, second and third and envenomed by sub lethal doses (1/3 LD50 and ½ LD50) intravenously and the serum enzymes namely Creatine Phosphokinase, Lactate Dehydrogenase, Glutamate-Oxaloacetate Transaminase, Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase, Alkaline Phosphatase and Amylase, serum electrolytes namely Sodium. Potassium and Calcium and also complete blood cells of control and experimental rats were measured. Results: The serum enzymes levels, potassium and calcium levels and withe blood cells count in envenomed rats by blackfin stonefish crude venom in compare with control rats had significant increase while the haemoglobin level, red blood cells count and also serum sodium level had significant decrease (p<0.001). Conclusion: The increase in hepatomascular enzyme levels, and the decrease in haemoglobin level can be a probable marker of the presence of rhabdomyolysis, haemolysis and also hepatotoxicity activities in the blackfin stonefish venom and that needs to the histopathologic studies in these systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Today use conotoxin as a neurotoxin and cytotoxin in medical science is obvious. These compounds are produced by venomous cone snails. Toxins produced by the venom apparatus of this snail and injected into the prey. To obtain and identification of these toxins, study of venom apparatus and the manufacture formation is necessary. Materials and Methods: In order to study the organ, specimens of C. coronatus were collected from the Coast of Gheshm Island. After dissection were fixed in Bouin's for 48 hours and transferred to laboratory into 70% ethanol. After dehydration and Paraffin embedded were cutted by microtome and then collected on glass slides and stained then photographed and studied. Results: Observation showed that, the venom bulb was muscular and in their middle part a channel with epithelial cells was observable that secreted some material. Venom duct walls composed of 3 parts including the outer layer of connective tissue with muscle an inner layer of columnar epithelial cells with basal nucleus and the inner lumens which filled by the. Departed nucleus by secretion exist in all 3 part of venom duct. In radula sac sections, lots growing radula were observed. Conclusion: Venom bulb was a weak secretion role and venom duct near the pharynx have a more mature granule than the other part. Holocrine secretion happened in all part of venom duct. Most suitable part for extract the conotoxin was the venom bulb end part. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The members of Scorpaenidae family, including stonefish (genus Synanceja) are among the most dangerous and venomous fishes in the word that inhibit in the tropical shallow waters. The toxinology of the venom of stonefish (genus Synanceja) showed that it is a mixture of proteins, containing several enzymes like hyaluronidase. The crude venom can produce cytolytic, hemolytic, neurotoxic and hypotensive effects in vivo. Immediate increasing intensive pain, local ischemia followed by cyanosis, edema and swelling are the local clinical presentations. Systemic manifestations are not uncommon. Hot water immersion of the injured limb, a local anesthetic agent without adrenaline, infiltrated into and around the wound, debridement of the necrotic tissue and the prescription of prophylactic antibiotic are the main therapeutic measures. The administration of antivenom may be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Jellyfishes belong to the phylum Cnidarians with a wide range of size, from 22 centimeters to 2.5 meters. Jellyfishes have a worldwide distribution comprising over nine thousands species that approximately, 100 species are dangerous for humans. The venoms of these organisms contain biomolecules with extensive activities which could be used as a source of novel drugs in the future. Materials and Methods: The PubMed data bank was searched for the term "Jellyfish". A total of 1677 papers were found. These papers were divided into three categories: medical, biomedical and biotechnological fields. The medical category was further divided into three subcategories comprising systemic manifestations, cutaneous manifestations and treatments for the stings of jellyfishes. The biomedical category was further subdivided into genomics, proteomics, and biology of venoms, mechanisms of actions and products of biomedical significance. In this part of systematic review, the biomedical and biotechnological and biotechnological fields were evaluated. Results: The genomics and proteomics of 24 species of jellyfishes had been studied in details. The mechanisms of actions of the venoms of 23 species were under investigations. The hematologic (hemolytic effects), cardiotoxic, neurotoxic, dermonecrotic, immunologic and cytotoxic presentations for the venoms were reported. Similar clinical presentations could be produced by different species of jellyfishes with a vast of molecular action mechanisms. Bioactive molecules with cytotoxic, anticancer, antibacterial and antioxidant effects were isolated from the venoms. Conclusion: The venoms of jellyfishes have bioactive molecules that produce a variety of complex intracellular interactions. Hence, the studies on the venomics of jellyfishes and the mechanisms of actions of their venoms could progress the therapeutic interventions and promise novel marine drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives Echis carinatus venom is a complex mixture of toxins. This venom contains metalloproteinases which convert prothrombin to meizothrombin. The prothrombin activator leads to the formation of small blood clots inside the blood vessels throughout the body. To understand the effect mechanism of Iranian Echis carinatus venom, in this study we investigated the effect of EV on human plasma proteins (prothrombin and fibrinogen) and on blood coagulation. The aim was the purification and characterization of procoagulant factor from the Iranian Echis Carinatus venom and the evaluation of the procoagulant activity on human plasma. Materials and Methods Crude venom from the Iranian snake species E. carinatus was selected. The prothrombin activator was purified from the crude venom of Echis carinatus by combination of the procedures by gel filtration, ion-exchange chromatography, and reverse phase HPLC. Electrophoresis on 12.5% polyacrylamide gel was performed. Results The Iranian E. carinatus venom was able to coagulate human plasma very rapidly. The coagulation time was reduced from 13.4 seconds (SD ±0.59) to 8.6 seconds (SD= ±0.64) when human plasma was treated with crude venom (concentraion of venom was 1 mg/ml). Conclusions The venom of Iranian Echis carinatus contains procoagulant factors. It seems the fraction F1B4 isolated from lEc to be like coagulation proteins which coagulate human plasma very rap idly in vitro. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]