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Objective The first step in understanding a species’ genome is to study the number and shape of its chromosomes. Determining the relationship between species of a genus, traits such as chromosome morphology, absolute chromosome size, diversity in coloring, centromere position chromosome base number, and numbers of satellites must be considered. This study aimed to investigate cytogenetic diversity and to determine the relationship between native garlic ecotypes of Iran (Shahroud, Bojnurd, Mashhad, Birjand, Talish) with foreign specimens (originated from Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan) and to prepare genome analysis based on chromosomal information. Materials and methods From the mitotic cells in the metaphase stage, which were prepared from the terminal meristem of the root and stained with acetoorcein, five suitable metaphase cells were selected and the length of short and long arms and the total length of chromosomes were measured using Karyotype Analysis Software (ver.1.5). Data were analyzed by JMP8 statistical software in an unbalanced completely randomized design. Mean comparisons were performed by Duncan test. To classify ecotypes, based on all chromosomal parameters, cluster analysis was performed using the Ward method. Results The results showed that the basic number of chromosomes in Turkmenistan and Bojnurd ecotypes was x=7, 2n=2x=14, and in other ecotypes x=8, 2n=2x=16. Short arm length, long arm length, and total chromosome length were significantly different (P≤0.01) between ecotypes. Cluster analysis divided the ecotypes into two groups. Minimum Euclidean distance observed between Azerbaijan and Talish ecotypes, the smallest chromosome belonged to Mashhad and the largest chromosome belonged to Shahroud. The most symmetric karyotype was Azerbaijan and the most asymmetric karyotype was the Shahroud ecotype. Conclusions The results showed that the differences in the number of chromosomes could be explained by Robertsonian translocations. It seems that the ecotypes with 2n=2x=14 chromosomes had more antiquity, and the ecotypes with 16 chromosomes originated from them. Considering that the Bojnourd ecotype with 14 chromosomes this region could be possibly introduced as the oldest origin or nuclear center of variation for garlic in Iran. Chromosomes also differ in the size and location of the centromere, which is due to chromosomal breakdown and the formation of a new structure in their reconnections. This study revealed which ecotypes are distant among the studied ecotypes, and also showed to produce possible future hybrids, in which direction will be more successful.

Introduction: King oyster mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii) belongs to Basidiomycota division, Agaricomycetes class and Pleurotaceae family. This mushroom generally grows on wood wastes of Apiaceae family. The Pleurotus eryngii is found in pastures, meadows, gardens and seldom in grassy forest clearings and hilly areas. The Pleurotus of the Umbellifers occupy an area in the Northern hemisphere between the 30 and 50º N. These species are mainly found in the subtropical regions of the Mediterranean, Central Europe, Russia, Ukraine, Central Asia and Iran. The P. eryngii sensulato is the only taxon within the genus, which grows in association with plants. P. eryngii has distinguishable characteristics such as coherent texture, unique form, favorable taste and high durability. Mushroom cultivation represents the only current economically viable biotechnology process for the conversion of waste plant residues from forests and agriculture. The species of these genera show much diversity in their adaptation the varying agro-climatic condition which makes more cultivated species than other mushrooms. Special ability of Pleurotus family is growing in lingocellulosic plant or agricultural wastes without needing to prepared compost and casing soil. Pleurotus is an efficient lignin- degrading mushroom and can grow and yield well on different types of lignocellulolosic materials. Type of substrates for mushroom growing depends on available plant or agricultural wastes. In Europe, wheat straw is used for mushroom growing; whereas in Asian South-East countries sawdust is more popular. Different materials for cultivating of P. eryngii have been suggested in different regions of the world; but a few studies have been done on suitability of various lignocellulosic affordable wastes for P. eryngii production in Iran. Therefore, the current study aims to evaluate effects of various locally available agro wastes on the growth characteristics of King oyster mushroom (P. eryngii). Materials and Methods: Sawdust was utilized as the main substrate obtained from beech and populous trees (1:1). After being rinsed off in water and supplemented with calcium sulfate (3%) and calcium carbonate (3%), the substrate was filled in 20 × 40 cm polyethylene bags weighted to 800 grams. Sterilization was performed at 121 °C under pressure of 1.5 bars for two hours. A cultivated P. eryngii strain was then inoculated in the cooled material at a rate of 3% of dry/fresh substrate. The experiments were conducted based on a completely randomized design with five treatments and four replications, measuring mycelial growth (MG), number of fruiting bodies (NFB), mushroom weight, and biological efficiency (BE). AMG was measured in both test tubes and in petri plates in different pH levels (5.5, 7, and 8.5). Data were analyzed by JAMP 4.0, while graphs were drawn by Microsoft Excel 2007 and SigmaPlot 12.0 software. Results and Discussion: The pH of 7 was found to be the best for obtaining maximal MG under all treatments after seven days. The highest amount of MG was obtained with substrate No. 1, while the least was observed in the culture of substrate No. 5. The substrates No. 1 and No. 5 generated the highest and lowest NFBs (p≤0.05). However, there was no significant difference (p≥0.05) in NFB between substrates No. 1 and 3 or between substrates No. 2, 4 and 5. The BE percentages obtained from experimental treatments No. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 were 64.81, 49.74, 59.22, 28.72, and 19.8, respectively. The comparison of means of different growth characteristics revealed that there was no significant difference between substrates No. 1 and 3 or between substrates No. 4 and 5 (p≥0.05). Conclusion: In this time, only two species (Agaricus bisporus and P. ostreatus) are producing in Iran, whereas at least 10 species of edible mushrooms are cultivating in the world. King oyster mushroom has low cost of production and distinguishable characteristics. Therefore, this mushroom can be use as alternative for button mushroom (A. bisporus). Many kind of agricultural wastes are in use for mushroom cultivation. Understanding the effects of substrate materials on mushroom production will be very valuable. The average number of fruits and biological efficiency of treatment No.1 showed significant difference with other treatments. Hence, the treatment No. 1 could be used for commercial production of King oyster mushrooms in Iran. Growth rate of P. eryngii was very diverse, in respect to the determinate values of the environmental factors. On the basis of the average growth rate of the strains, we could conclude what are the optimum ecological values of the species, though these conclusions did not always coincide with the optimum values of the certain strains. However, more research needs to be done to obtain regular and homogeneous supply of this mushroom.

Introduction: Edible white button mushroom (Agaricusbisporus) is the most common edible mushroom in Iran and the world. The yield of this mushroom is less than the average of yield in the world because of strain degeneration and using strains with low yield. Most of the current hybrids are either identical or very similar to the first hybrids. Ongoing breeding programs are exploiting the variability in Agaricus germplasm to produce new varieties with better traits including higher yield and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. One of the breeding programs is F1 production from parental homokaryons crossing. These homokaryonsis were isolated among germinated basidiospores on the culture media. During the last decades, various molecular markers based on nucleic acid polymorphisms (such as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA, Amplified fragment of Length Polymorphism, Inter Simple Sequence Repeat, Simple Sequence Repeat markers) have been used to differentiate homokaryons and heterokaryons. Microsatellites consist of short tandem repeat motifs distributed throughout the genome. Microsatellites are usually highly polymorphic due to a high degree of variation in the number of repeats among individuals. Microsatellite markers are multiallelic and co-dominant and thus tend to be more informative than other marker systems. Microsatellite markers have been widely developed in animals and plants and more recently in fungal species. The presence of microsatellites in the genome of A. bisporus was previously reported. Materials and Methods: In this research, 160 germinated basidiospores were collected from commercially cultivated strain A15 and they were grown on compost extract agar (CEA). The mycelial growth rate of these160 isolates was evaluated at 25°C on CEA medium. 18 isolates with slow growing rate were selected from 160 isolates. In the next step, co-dominant SSR markers were used to homokaryons detection. Ten SSR primers showed polymorphism in parental control samples that were used to this experiment. The isolates were divided into two general homoallelic and heteroallelic groups and seven isolates from homoallellic group, which showed one-band pattern, characterized as putative homokaryon. Genetic similarity was calculated by NTSYSpc software version 2.02 e using UPGMA method. In the next step of experiment, the isolates (4 and 8) had minimum genetic similarity that was crossed to produce hybrid. In order to confirm the hybrid formation, PCR-SSR reaction with a primer (AbSSR 45) was performed. Results and Discussions: Basidiospores were collected and allowed to germinate on CEA medium. Putative homokaryons were different in colony morphology and growth rate compared to the original heterokaryons. Mycelium samples showed different colony morphology including tomentose, apprised and strandy mycelium. Different growth rate can be affected by genetic factors in nucleus and mitoconderia. After four weeks, mycelium browning was appeared in liquid compost extract medium and created a disturbance in DNA extraction. To solve this problem, DNA was extracted from three-week old mycelium. Mycelium browning may cause by phenolic compounds produced by mycelium and enzymes that catalyze melanin biosynthesis reactions. Ten primers were used to homokaryon isolation. These primers were situated on the 9 linkage groups of 13 haploid chromosomes. Seven isolates were distinguished as putative homokaryon that showed one-band in all primers on the gel electrophoresis. The results of genetic similarity calculation showed that this index was variable between 0.17 to 0.67in 7 homokaryon isolates and the minimum genetic similarity (0.17) was observed between isolates 4 and 8. These two isolates were crossed and the result of this crossing was N1 hybrid. Also, other homokaryon isolates were crossed and mating incompatibility was observed in some of them. According to these observations, it is suggested that in future studies, in addition to genetic similarity, sexual incompatibility should also be considered. Hybrid N1 produced aerial mycelium and had higher growth rate in comparison to parental homokaryons and similar to heterokaryon control, had two-bands pattern. This two bands pattern indicates the presence of two non-sister nucleuse in each cells. Finally, the results showed that SSR marker can result to accurate detection of homokaryons. Conclusions: The aim of the present study was screening homokaryon isolates of A.bisporus using SSR markers to obtain hybrid. Results showed that growth rate of homokaryon isolates were lower than the heterokaryons. Since, SSR markers were able to show high polymorphism in the isolates, thus it can be said that these markers are suitable to homokaryon screening. Final result of this study is N1 hybrid that can compare to commercially cultivated strains.

Introduction: The white button mushroom does not produce remarkable yield in the third flash. Nutritional deficiency and the inability of this mushroom to efficient use of compost are mentioned as its reasons. Basically, compost includes two major food components, lignocellulose and microbial biomass. But this microbial biomass provides just 10% of button mushroom food needs. According to research studies, differentenzymes in both white button mushroom and oyster mushroom are responsible for decomposition of lignin compounds in compost media, from begin of mycelium grows to the end of fruiting. Lacasse, manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidase, glyoxal oxidase enzymes contribute to degradation of lignin compounds in degradation mushroom has proven by researchers however itis dependent on mushroom types. Manganese peroxidase enzyme (EC. 1.11.1.13) is an extracellular parser lignin enzyme that has a central peroxidase core. Manganese peroxidase enzyme oxidizesMn2+ to Mn3+ and then Mn3+ oxidizes phenolic structure to fonoxile radical. Produced Mn3+ is very active and makes complex by chelating organic acids that is produced by mushrooms such as oxalate or malate. Mn3+ ions become stable by helping of these chelates and it can penetrate through materials such as wood. On the other hand, in recent years, plant biotechnology provides new solutions for old problems such as use of microorganisms, particularly using bacteria for gene transfer and improvement of superlatives. For a sample of this method, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system can be noted. In addition, the use of suitable promoters for heterologous genes expression in suitable hosts is an important strategy in functional biotechnology that has been raised in edible mushroom genetic engineering. The lack of efficient and sufficient use of compost, low power of white button mushroom in competition with other rivals, lack of yield per area unit due to production costs, pests and diseases, low flexibility and adaptability with environmental conditions changes are some of the problems that the mushroom reformers are faced. Unlike the great efforts made by researchers, conventional breeding techniques to produce the A. bisporus mushroom only have been led to produce a few new races. Therefore, todays some problems associated with traditional methods of breeding of edible mushrooms, including the need to provide races that have desired characteristics, the traditional method performance tests and low chances of success in the transfer of important agronomic characteristics such as functionality and disease resistance. So, they almost have been replaced with new biotechnology methods. Anexample of this method is to manipulateproperties transformation for the particular purpose. Modification of both expression or type of lignin degrading enzyme are possible solutions to deal with this problem, but these are not applicable or are difficult to be done with traditional breeding programs. In recent years, gene transformation mediated with Agrobacterium routinely is used for gene transformation to mushrooms and is proposed as a method for removing limitations of white button mushroom breeding. Materials and Methods: In this research, the oyster mushroom strain Florida was used as the source of manganese peroxidase (mnp) gene and white button mushroom strain 737 gill and cap tissue were used as transformation host. Agrobacterium strain LBA4404 harbors p133H88-FM plasmid thatcontainsmnp gene of oyster mushroom and also hph gene under control of gpdII promoter of the button white mushroom strain IM008 was used as a transformer. Selection medium containing 30 mg/ml Hygromycin B and was used for selecting transformed explants. To confirm transformation, PCR with specific primers of mnp and hph genes was performed on genomic DNA of selected colonies. Results and Discussion: Results showed the gill tissue explants, with transformation rate 5%, have a better response to applied transformation method than cap tissue explants, with transformation rate zero percent. As expected, polymerase chain reaction with specific primers ofhph and mnp genes amplified 1049 and 1086 bp fragments and verified the transformation of mycelium's grown on selection medium. It seems that Bacterial strain and also used plasmid were one of the responses for observed low rate transformation which is in accordance with leach and co-workers study. Finally, we could propose that cap tissue is more suitable for further gene transformation of this mushroombecause of high transformation rate of cap tissue.

Introduction: Among edible mushrooms, white button mushroom is the most cultivated one around the world. Mono-spores diversity in terms of growth rate, colony type, yield and etc. is used for intra strain genetic improvement. High yielding isolates with filamentous mycelium type are screened and used for spawn production (Farsi and Gordan, 2002). Success in mushroom production largely depends on the quality of spawn produced in sterile conditions (Sanchez, 2010). Farsi and Gordan, (2004) reported that colony shape and mycelium growth type are very important factors in screening isolates in terms of mycelium growth rate and yield. To screen isolates based on their mycelium growth, solid media are among the most suitable ones (Griffin, 1994). In a study conducted to evaluate mycelium growth rate of six Morchella species on different media, PDA and MEA were known as the best ones (Kalmis and Kalyoncu, 2008). The present study was conducted in order to evaluate mycelium growth rate and yield of white button mushroom isolates in solid medium, spawn and compost media. Materials and methods: Eighteen isolates of white button mushroom were compared on PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar), CYM (Complete Yeast Medium), spawn and compost media based on mycelium growth rate, type and class growth and yield at the mushroom research center of Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, in 2014. A piece of mycelium of each isolate was placed in the center of each petri dish and was kept in 23±1°C, and the radial growth rate of mycelium was measured as two perpendicular diameters in three consecutive weeks. Mycelium growth rate on spawn and compost media was measured based on the percentage of surface coverage during the 15 consecutive days. Yield of each isolate was measured by daily harvesting of mushrooms during 35 days of experiment. Analysis of variance and means comparison of the variables were carried out using SAS software. Means analysis was performed using LSD test at 5% significance level. Results and discussion: There were significant differences among isolates based on mycelium growth rate and yield. In PDA medium, 2200 isolate showed the fastest mycelium growth rate with 1.9 mm.day-1 and final colony diameter of 8.1 cm. were This isolate also showed the fastest mycelium growth rate on CYM medium and covering the spawn and compost media surfaces, and produced the highest yield along with A15a isolate (A15a and 2200 with 22.1 and 19.4 kg.m-2, respectively). Magnum d with mycelium growth rate of 0.7 mm.day-1 and final colony diameter of 3.1 cm showed the slowest mycelium growth rate. On average, 75% of isolates were grouped in slow mycelium growth rate class and 25% were placed in fast mycelium growth rate class. Isolates A15a, 2200, A15, M7219 and F64d showed fast mycelium growth rate. All of the isolates showed filamentous mycelium growth type and no abnormal mycelium growth type was observed. Isolate A15a with 50% coverage of compost surface during the first 5 days and 90% during the 15 days showed the fastest mycelium growth rate on this medium, followed by isolates F64d, 2200 and A15a. Normal mycelium growth rate on compost medium varied from 6-8 to sometimes 10-12 mm.day-1 (Farsi and Pooyanfar, 2011). There was a high positive correlation between mycelium growth rate and the yield component, so that isolates with faster mycelium growth rate produced higher yield. Farsi and Gordan, (2001) also reported significant positive correlation between filamentous mycelium type and yield, so that isolates with filamentous mycelium growth type and high mycelium growth rate produced higher yield. Faster mycelium growth rate is considered as a desire characteristic in mushroom cultivation due to the reduction of contamination risk of other micro-organisms (Oie, 2003). Conclusion: There was a high significant difference among white button mushroom isolates in terms of mycelium growth rate and yield. Isolates with faster mycelium growth rate on solid medium produced higher yield. A high positive correlation was observed between mycelium growth rate on CYM and compost media, so it could be used as an appropriate medium for comparison of mycelium growth rate in vitro. As comparison of strain yield is time consuming and difficult, screening based on their growth rate on CYM is recommended.

Introduction: Homozygous doubled haploid lines production through induction of androgenesis is a promising method to accelerate the classical breeding program. However, this technology is relatively under - developed in tomato so that improvements in methodology are required. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) is one of the most important vegetables which in addition of it is importance as a food, is utilized as a model plant for cytological and cytogenetic studies. Tomato breeding programs are often based on the production and selection of hybrid plants. To produce hybrid plants and application of features that is needed to breed pure lines with high specific combining abilities, new technologies such as doubled haploid production through induction of androgenesis can be an effective strategy to provide pure lines in tomato. One of the critical factors for induction of androgenesis in tomato is to use of microspores being in appropriate developmental stage. Cytological examination is one of the most accurate methods for determining the correct stage of microspore development. In this study, a number of characteristics were evaluated including the cytological properties of normal microspores development and pollen grains as well as the relationship between length of flower bud and anther length. Materials and Methods: In this study, four varieties of tomato including Mobil - Netherlands, Baker, U. S. Agriseed and Khoram were chosen. To determine the appropriate stage of microspore development for Anther culture, cytologycal studies were accomplished at different size length of flower buds (2. 0 - 7. 9 mm). Collection of flower buds to conduct experiments was done during 10 - 40 days after flowering for each cultivar. Flower buds collected early in the morning hours and within the containers closed - door ice were transported to the laboratory. To investigate the correlation between the length of flower bud and anther length, randomly selected from within each group of three flower buds, and their length was measurement. Then anthers were removed and anther length was measured for each flower buds. A total of 240 anthers, sixty anthers from each cultivar, were examined by microscope. In order to examine the development stage of microspores and pollen grains, flower buds at different length (5 - 10 mm) were calculated. Flower buds were incubated at 4 oC for 15 minutes and stained in acetocarmin %4 solution and squashed. In order to determine the relative frequency of each stage of the development of microspore and pollen, microspores at least 100 randomly in different parts of prepared slides were counted. Average relative frequency of different stages, meiosis, tetrads, microspores young and old and young and mature pollen grains with a standard deviation was calculated. Cytological studies were accomplished by microscopy research Olympus B X 51 and photographed by a digital camera D P 70. All analysis was conducted using statistical software JMP 8. Results and Discussion: The time of anthers collection for the induction of haploid is very crucial. In order to determine the appropriate steps to carry out pre - treatment induced changes in the normal development of microspores embryogenesis and cytological properties in various stages of division and development should be monitored. The results showed that there was a significant correlation between the length of flower bud and the anther length (r = 0.8, P

Different enzymes in oyster mushroom (pleurotus oatreatus), can degradate the lignin compounds from the beginning of mycelium growth up to the end of fruiting period in the environment of compost and straw. Wood, plant residue and most of plant wastes in the nature are called lignocelluloses compounds. Lignocelluloses is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Magnesium peroxides enzyme (EC:1:11:1:13) is one the most common peroxides destroying lignin which produced by most wood decomposing mushrooms as well as many compost decomposing mushrooms. In order to cloning of mnp gene, RNA was extracted from oyster edible mushroom (P.ostreatus var.florida) and cDNA was synthesized and then the primers was designed based on the sequence of the mnp gene using Primer Premier (V.5.0) software and was amplified by PCR. First, the gene was inserted to pTG-19T plasmid and was confirmed using sequencing. In continue, mnp gene was cloned in to the p13H88 plasmid. Then it was transferred to Ecoli (DH5a) using ice-melt method and its presence was confirmed by enzymatic digestion. The results showed that mnp gene is cloned in p13H88 plasmid and the recombinant plasmid was named as p13H88-FM.

In hybrid seed production program based on three-line system, the use of fertility restorer line with desirable specific combining ability carrying fertility restoration (Rf) genes is indispensible. In this research, fertility restoration locus Rf3 was transferred into CMS line ‘Neda-A’ using marker-assisted backcrossing (MAB) method and simultaneously its effect on pollen and panicle fertility of recipient line was evaluated in each generation. For transferring the locus, a single F2 plant (derived from ‘Neda-A’ x ‘IR36’ cross) was selected based on Rf3-linked three markers (RM1, RM3233 and RM3873) and backcrossed to ‘Neda-A’ (as the recurrent parent). The BC1 progenies were screened for Rf3-linked markers and also phenotyped and subsequently screened for 15 background SSR markers. Only two BC1 plants with donor dominant allele at all three loci showed high panicle fertility (65% and 50%). BC2 progenies were developed after backcrossing these two plants to recurrent parent. Among BC2 progenies, a single plant having a higher fertility was self-pollinated and 170 resultant BC2F2 plants were screened with 3 foreground Rf3-linked markers (RM1, RM3233 and RM3873) and also evaluated in terms of seed setting. Seven plants were identified with a higher rate of recurrent parent genome (91.1% to 98.5%) and in complete homozygote state at three Rf3- linked markers. These plants had a high pollen and panicle fertility (75% to 97%), indicating that with increasing homozygosity of Rf3 locus, fertility restoration to WA cytoplasmic male sterility in the genetic background of CMS recipient line was further enhanced. Therefore, it can be concluded that Rf3 locus has an interaction to WA cytoplasmic male sterility in favor of increasing the rice pollen and panicle fertility, and hence it can be utilized along with other restoring fertility genes in hybrid seed production program of rice.

Introduction: Listening to patients is essential for medical practice and patient care. This study was conducted to determine the time given to patients to explain their problem before being interrupted and redirected by clinical faculties in outpatient clinics of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences. Methods: The cross-sectional observational descriptive study was carried out in year 2011-2012, by observing and audio recording 330 clinical consultations from 30 faculty member physicians. The sample size was determined by doing a pilot study and the faculties were selected randomly using stratified sampling. The time initially given to patients to explain their problem before being interrupted and redirected by physicians was measured in seconds using a chronometer. An MP3 recorder was used for audio recording. Data were collected by non-participatory observation method. Descriptive statistics was used along with ANOVA, t test, correlation and regression for data analysis. Results: Participation rate in patients and physicians were 93% and 46%, respectively. The physicians had a mean age of 47, included both male(70% ) and female(30%), and were mainly assistant professors(67%). Data from 320 observations were analyzed. The average time given to the patients to explain their problems was 9.5±0.55 seconds. The given times were negatively correlated with number of booked appointments(r= -0.15, p≤0.007) and positively correlated with total consultation time(r=0.21, p≤0.0001). Conclusion: The findings show that the clinical faculties are giving relatively less time to their patients compared with the similar studies. Poor performance of faculties as the role models of future doctors leads to students’ cynicism for professional medical standards. Future projects are recommended in order to set standards for medical practice and maximum workload of physicians.

Actinomyces bacteria are the best parser microrganisms in environment and agriculture. These bacteria are frequent in compost and produce antibiotics & extracellular enzymes. In this study, some strains of actinomycetes were separated from different steps in composting process. After that, morphological, biochemical and molecular tests were performed for identification of them. Carboxy Methyl Cellulase assay was applied for endoglucanase activity. For optimizing conditions different treatments including pHs: 5.7, 6, 6.5, 7, 7/5, temperatures 45-65°C and times 30, 60 and 90 minutes were used. Optimum temperature for high endoglucanase activity was 60°C and isolate No.19 with 0.289 unit/ml showed the highest endoglucanase activity in this temperature. According to molecular result obtained from RFLP of 16SrRNA, most of actinomyces isolates were from streptomyces genus.

The genus Hymenocrater (Lamiaceae, Mentheae) comprises 11 species in Flora Iranica of which nine species are mostly distributed in Iran. Among Iranian species, five are found in the Razavi, North and South Khorasan provinces. Eighty morphological characters were measured in 44 herbarium specimens belonging to: H. calycinus, H. bituminosus, H. platystegius and H. elegans. The Kruskal-Wallis Test was implemented to evaluate which characters significantly differentiate the species. Thus, forty-two morphological characters were used in subsequent analyses. Taxonomic relationships were investigated using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). H. bituminosus and H. platystegius were separated in two distinct groups. There was no sharp distinction between the two other species, H. calycinus and H. elegans. Canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) was also applied to find the best discriminating traits among the species.

According to the “Flora Iranica”, the genus Erysimum has 26 species in Iran among which 11 species are reported in Shomali, Razavi and Jonoubi Khorasan provinces as yet. In this study, two of the species ate introduced for the first time. Due to the extreme similarities and the wide variation of the morphological characters, identification of these species is very difficult. In this study, we attempted to separate the species using morphological characters. We scored 75 morphological (vegetative and generative) characters of 84 individuals belonging to 11 species. The results of the multivariate analysis indicated the separation among the studied species and showed three distinct groups among samples. The first group was individuals of E. repandum, E. griffithianum, E. sisymbrioides, E. nanum and E. persepolitanum. The second group included individuals of E. aitchisonii, E. kerbabaevii and E. crassipes. The third group consisted of E. crassicaule, E. stocksianum, E. crassicaule (with trichome) and E. ischnostylum. Finally, an identification key was introduced based on morphological characters for Erysimum species in Khorasan.

As interests in complementary and alternative medicine grows, the scientists are looking forward in researches which determine the mechanisms in which they exert their effectiveness. Some of these modalities like Yoga, Acupuncture, and especially other bio-field therapies such as none contact therapeutic touch, affects the bio-field which spreads throughout the body and into the space around it. According to physic’s law, when electricity flows throw the living tissues, like what happens in our heart and brain, biomagnetic fields are being induced in the surrounding space. Beside that moving charges like ions and free radicals which finally produce electromagnetic fields. Using very sensitive magnetometers, biomagnetic fields have been detected and get amplified up to 1000 times by meditation. This phenomenon could be the basis for most of most complementaty therapeutic approaches like therapeutic touch. On the other hand the electrical, magnetic and bio-magnetic fields have a well known application in conventional medicine. Modern research about bio-magnetism and magneto-biology suggests that in term of both aspects, the effects and the mechanisms for all the different looking modalities used in conventional medicine and complementary medicine which have commons in their fundamentals. This article reviews some of the recent works on biological effects of natural or artificial electromagnetic fields.