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Epistemology is a science that discusses human knowledge, including its nature, possibility, ways, types, territory, etc. of knowledge. It is a field that philosophers, theologians, and religious scholars have taken more effective steps in deepening and developing it. Jewish thinkers have also paid special attention to this issue. Sadia bin yusuf al-fayoumi, nicknamed Sadia Gaon, the father of Jewish philosophy and the head of the Rabbinical religious school "Sura", is considered one of the most important theologians in the history of the tradition of Rabbinical Judaism. He is known as the first Jewish philosopher and exegete in the middle centuries due to his innovative and systematic ideas. He is the first person who, in addition to his detailed views on theology and cosmology, has also raised important opinions on epistemology in two works ‘Kitab Al-Amanat Wa'l-'tiqadat (the Book of Beliefs and Opinions)’ and ‘Tafsir Sefer Yetsira (Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira)’. The two works suggest two different structures of epistemology. Sadia points out that the human mind is able to explain reality in two ways: one is based on empirical rationalism and the other is based on divine illumination and self-revelation in the mind. In other words, the human mind can act in two modes like the act of dialogue (i.e. arguing and reasoning or being silent, meditating, listening, and seeing). Considering the unique role of knowledge arising from reflection and revelation, in reaching the complete truth, Sadia plans and examines it from various angles in his important works. Along with Al-Amanat Wa'l 'tiqadat, he makes a detailed discussion in the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira about epistemology. Its study helps a lot to understand his thought. Sadia's thinking in religions and beliefs has a controversial nature. In the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, he has relatively deep and esoteric thinking. This study, using the analytical comparative method, investigates the topics related to epistemology raised in the two mentioned works of Sadia. In his works, knowledge has different meanings: in Al-Amanat Wa'l- 'tiqadat, it is shown as the correspondence between external reality and its concept in the human mind, while in Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, knowledge is related to the origin and nature of creation. In ‘the Book of Beliefs and Opinions’, Sadia, in a positive answer regarding the possibility of acquiring knowledge, considers his goal to be certain and removes all doubts. In this book, while proving the same validity of knowledge and results that can be achieved through revelation and rational reasoning, he cites verses from the Bible to prove the foundations of his epistemological teachings. He considers the factor of knowledge to be the intellectual power of the soul, which only God has rightly placed in the person's existence. Despite the fact that the cognitive process relies on sensory perception, the intellect includes a system of principles and generalities that exist independently of sensory data. The Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira considers the goal of the author of the book to be the representation (portrait) of how things come into being and find their existence so that the knower can understand them and the wise beings can learn them. Therefore, while confirming the possibility of acquiring knowledge, this work emphasizes the role of revelation in this connection. Al-Amanat Wa'l-'tiqadat presents the elements of the ‘cognition process’ in the form of a hierarchical model in three steps: 1) a complex and vague idea that is only a vague and confused idea of the nature of the research subject, 2) an analysis of this idea, and 3) accepting the ultimate truth by a belief freed from doubts. Here we witness a process of gradual internalization of knowledge that occurs in the mind, a process during which sensory perception turns into belief. In this process, reason gradually removes the factors that cause doubt and error, and then reaches the understanding of the truth by refining and classifying the mixed information of the external world. This is Saadia's model to reach the correct belief. The Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira does not include regular epistemological statements that describe the process of cognition in detail. But it associates three necessary factors (knowing, thinking, and believing) with the three corresponding faculties of the soul. He attributes knowledge to the power of collecting data (al-Qowwah al-Hashira) of the soul, which collects the discussed data and transmits them to the second power. The second power is the ‘discernment power’ (al-Qowwah al-Momaizah), which recognizes true and false data and verifies the facts by rejecting false data. Then, this power transfers the refined information to ‘Al-Qowwah al-Mu’taqidah’ which preserves it and becomes sure of its authenticity. In the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, along with the three general sources of knowledge, mentioned in Al-Amanat Wa'l-'tiqadat, the knowledge of ‘lightning-like’ (Kal-barq), i.e. illumination, plays a prominent role. In complete contrast to his negative assessment of lightning-like knowledge in Al-Amanat, in the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, he states that the principles of things appear in the mind like lightning, then they become clear and certain before his eyes. Of course, this duality goes back to different approaches of Sadia's epistemology in these two works as well as the related fields. In Al-Amanat, the knowledge of ‘lightning-like’ refers to sensible reality per se. But in Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, knowledge has the nature of representation. That is, the mind relies on itself in the complete absence of sensory data. Therefore, it seems that illumination is the only way to understand this ‘other reality’. In al-Amanat and beliefs, knowledge means the correspondence of external reality and its meaning in the human mind, while in the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira, it is related to the ultimate roots of creation, without considering sensory perception. Wisdom is one of the most controversial epistemological words of Sadia. Saadia's definition of wisdom is based on various biblical passages, and thus it can be seen as the result of Saadia's exegetical activities rather than independent philosophical reflection. In Al-Amanat, al-Hikmat is defined as “kawn al-ashyaʾ ʿala ḥaqaʾiqiha al-maʿluma wa-laysa-l-ḥikma an takun al-ashyaʾ ʿala tamanni mutamanin wa-la shahwa mushtahin” and the Commentary on the Sefer Yetzira defines it as “al-ḥikma hiya tartib al-ashyaʾ maratibaha wa-taqdiruha maqadiraha”. In short, according to Sadia, it should be said that reality speaks in two languages. In other words, the human mind is able to understand and express reality in two ways: one is universal and unanimous, and ultimately based on sensory and intellectual perception, and the other is based on God's self-revelation through human intuition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpretation of the existence and text is a type of esoteric (rational-intuitive) excavation of a subject that leads to the discovery and extraction of new propositions. Mulla Sadra, as a philosopher, is of rationally grounded principles in epistemology which have influenced his hermeneutical style. The study and analysis of these principles, the inference and identification of the rules that are based on these principles, and also the scope of the influence of these principles and rules on Sadra’s hermeneutical interpretations are among the main goals of the present essay. The methodology of the present study is descriptive-analytical focusing on Mulla Sadra’s works. The main extracted rules consist of the movement from the acquired knowledge to the knowledge by the presence of intuitive interpretation. To put it more clearly, human understanding of the text of existence can make its way from the acquired knowledge of objects to the sense of the presence of objects. This process of the reading of existence is what we refer to as the hermeneutical method that has its origin in the belief in the sacredness of the text of existence as a divine manifestation. When one encounters existence in the form of presential intelligence, a hermeneutical effort has taken place, but it is not so that this process has come to its end; because existence does not stop by its manifestations and its messages are infinite. The second rule is the active and productive role of reason in rational interpretation. Reason in this context as the source of human knowledge is indeed discursive theoretical reason which represents the stage of the acquisition of the theories and the intelligibilia (actual reason) from the meanings of the quadruple stages. In “Breaking the Idols of Ignorance”, Sadra insists that if the argumentative reason is not strengthened, imagination would get activated and thus cordial openings are replaced with imaginative pictures. The application of reason for hermeneutical interpretation consists of the supervision of the hermeneutical understanding and those requirements inferred from the surface of the text which should be correspondent to the rules of interpretation. These rules are discussed at the end of this study. Moreover, discursive reason in the course of the evolution of the epistemic foundations of interpretation can also play its role. Theories of knowledge each one of which has been rationally grounded in its particular school are theories that consider knowledge to have a process the outcome of which is knowledge or consciousness. For example, if in the knowledge we believe in the theories of intellects, in the theory of ideas, or even Kant’s epistemologic a l doctrine, each one of these understands knowledge in terms of a particular process. Accordingly, each of these epistemic perspectives respectively traces the origin of the emergence of hermeneutics or interpretation back to active intellect, ideas, or the structure of the human mind. Sadra believes that intuitive truths that are revealed to the person under particular conditions lie outside the scope of rational activity and argument in its specific sense; then, reason does not have access to the border of opening and intuition. When the soul reaches the knowledge through thinking, we call this mode of knowledge “reason” while if this knowledge is acquired directly from God it is called “heart”. Reason moves forward in the course of the acquisition of knowledge through delimitation and creation of connection and conditions while the heart traverses this course via transcending the conditions and limits. Receptivity and passivity of cordial perception in intuitive interpretation, the necessity of the harmony of rational-intuitive interpretation with the primordial perception, and the hierarchical nature of the structure of intuitive interpretation are among the other rules discussed in the present study. Dynamicity of hermeneutical interpretation is rooted in the dynamicity of truth not in our capability of arbitrary reading of truth because this dynamicity is due to the dynamicity of divine inspirations and manifestations. Human connection with the existential world is proportionate to his ascension and he will turn into the truth of that world insofar as if he reaches the world spirits, he will face the original truths. The intermediate role of the world of ideas and imagination in intuitive interpretation is the other rule. Sadra’s theory of the immateriality of imagination becomes explicated in his discussion of imagination in interpretations of purgatorial and otherworldly ideas. Moreover, according to Sadra’s theories, the intermediate role of the world of ideas and imagination is uncovered in the depiction of intuitive ideas and interpretation. The necessity of controlling the sources of knowledge in the interpretation (the necessity of regulation in particular) is the last rule which we have discussed. Sadra reiterates that the essence and secrets of the text of the Quran are not in conflict with its interpretative appearance rather complete it. In hermeneutical interpretation, metaphoric use does not occur. Therefore, the correct interpretation is the one that is in harmony with the surface of the Book and the Sunnah. The present study not only demonstrates part of the logical and philosophical rules governing the textual interpretations, but also presents an analysis of hermeneutical knowledge sources (reason and heart) which can contribute to a deeper and practical understanding of transcendent philosophy. Epistemological rules are concerned with the existential mode of human epistemic faculties in particular though these rules are mostly pre-hermeneutic. In other words, our knowledge of them can explain the substructure of Sadra’s interpretations. These rules have been inferred from Sadra’s works and enriched with the texts which are in line with Sadra’s ideas. These heptafold rules are grounded in semantic realism and textual understanding, the theory of author-centeredness and textualism, and finally in ontological realism. Sadra’s interpretations are divided into two rational and intuitive types. The reason is of an active role in these Sadraean interpretations and is concerned with production and creativity but this creativity is controlled with interpretative regulations. According to Sadra, the reason is prior to tradition and basically intuition is a level higher than discursive reason which lies over it. The results of this study show that without paying attention to the aforementioned principles and their relevant rules, one cannot reach a tridimensional and deep understanding of Sadraean interpretations. Failure of correct understanding of the place of hermeneutical interpretation in Mulla Sadra’s philosophy is itself the source of many of the views and criticisms that are expressed by the opponents and critics of Sadraean philosophy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heritage and modernity are among the most challenging and perhaps the most sensitive issues of the last two hundred years of the Islamic world, around which different and sometimes contradictory, extremist, and deviant readings and approaches have been formed. Undoubtedly, this issue is one of the common and frequent topics in the intellectual discourse of the Arab world and has attracted the attention of many thinkers. Hassan Hanafi (1935) is a thinker, theorist, and one of the most prominent contemporary religious modernists. His project of heritage reconstruction is one of the great projects in the Arab Islamic world. Hanafi launched a project to rethink and rebuild the legacy of the past to resolve the crises and challenges of the Islamic-Arab world. This present descriptive-analytical study aims to review and critique Hassan Hanafi’s heritage reconstruction project. The study addresses the following questions: What is the definition of heritage from Hanafi’s point of view? What are the components of the Hanafi’s heritage reconstruction project? What are Hanafi’s intellectual foundations in this project? What is the Hanafi approach to this project? What are heritage readings? This study uses two articles of Nasrullah Aghajani as benchmarks. The results show that according to Hanafi, heritage reconstruction is made in special ways, some of which involve language and words, some refer to meanings and concepts, and some to the very nature of objects and subjects. Introduction Modernity in the Arab world began from the moment the Arab thinker realized that the Westerners were ahead of him and that he was still lagging behind. The beginning of this moment is mentioned in the attack of Napoleon Bonaparte in the late 18th century. That is, modernity did not originate from the context of an internal cultural revolution. Some see it as a moment of cultural invasion and the spread of Western colonialism in the Arab world. Modernity allowed the Arab intellect to discover itself, its shortcomings, and its space. The clash between the Islamic and Western systems took place during Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798, which led to their confrontation and affected the people. The issue of heritage and modernity is one of the most important challenging issues in contemporary Arab thought in the 1970s, especially if we look at the vast amount of writings, researches, and seminars that have dealt with this subject. Hassan Hanafi (born 1935, Cairo) was a thinker, theorist, and one of the most prominent contemporary Egyptian religious modernists. He was an Islamic theorist, a graduate of the French Sorbonne University, and taught and researched in many universities in Arab countries. He had the middle ground between fundamentalism and secular currents. Hanafi became famous for his Islamic leftist views and the intellectual project called ‘heritage reconstruction’. Hanafi works in the three areas of reconstruction of Islamic heritage, western studies, and the recognition of issues related to the contemporary reality of Muslims. Materials and Methods The present study critiques Hanafi’s heritage reconstruction project using a descriptiveanalytical approach. Articles have already been written on Hanafi’s intellectual foundations, methodology, and Western studies project. We can even refer to numerous and noteworthy articles (e.g. Nasrullah Aghajani and his book entitled Islam and Modernity in Egypt). The two studies of Aghajani have been considered in this study as benchmarks of criticizing Hanafi’s heritage reconstruction: ‘Islamic heritage in the grip of modernity: a critique of Hassan Hanafi's approach in the reconstruction of Islamic heritage’ and ‘the methodology of Hassan Hanafi's intellectual system’. Discussion of Results and Conclusions In Aghajani’s first study, the issue of modernization and ways of modernizing heritage, which is considered in the present study, is mentioned. But the project of heritage reconstruction and its components and readings, the difference between modernity and innovation, and other issues raised in the present, have not been considered by Aghajani. In the second study, Hanafi’s methodology including the epistemological and nonepistemological fields affecting his intellectual system is stated and only influential people and schools are mentioned and Hanafi’s reconstruction project is not discussed. Hanafi presented a project called ‘heritage reconstruction’ to solve the contemporary crises of the Islamic-Arab world, which is one of his most important intellectual projects based on conceptualization. He refers to the legacy of spiritual data left over from the history of Islam in the fields of traditional epistemology. He believes the tradition itself must be achieved by suspending existing interpretations. Hanafi has a utilitarian view of the Islamic tradition that should be reconstructed in that part of the Islamic tradition. This view is in line with the conditions of the Islamic world. Hanafi describes the Islamic heritage phenomenologically according to Husserl's phenomenology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]