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The discussion of moral virtues and vices is one of the common ideas in the moral and mystical beliefs of ancient Iran and India. According to the idea of dualism, vice traits are caused by the forces of evil and darkness, and good traits are influenced by the forces of good and light. Avoiding vices, especially the vice of anger, is emphasized in this common thought and its expression in Avesta, Pahlavi, and Manichaean works of ancient Iran and the works of Vedic, Brahminical, and Buddhist literature of ancient India. In the Shahnameh, the battle of these two forces of good and evil can be seen in the thoughts, words and actions of the characters in Ferdowsi's stories and words. In Mawlavi's Masnavi, there is a battle between good and evil in human existence. In this research, the attribute of anger in ancient Iran and India has been investigated based on Shahnameh and Masnavi, with a comparative and analytical method. According to this study, anger is used in the two concepts of the demon of anger and the vice of anger in the works of Iran and ancient India. We can see the reflection and influence of these two concepts in Shahnameh and Masnavi. Therefore, the research shows that the devil makes people feel demonic through the unpleasant attribute of anger and moves them away from the group of goodness and light and closer to the group of evil and darkness. Now, this anger can have a demonic face or a blasphemous quality. Therefore, by analyzing the evidence of the works, we have shown that Ferdowsi and Molavi, as two great poets of the Islamic period, have well expressed these concepts of ancient Iranian and Indian thought in the Shahnameh and Masnavi, and have adhered to the continuity of their ancient Aryan culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 20th century, Lucien Goldman proposed one of the most effective theories in the field of sociological criticism, namely the theory of developmental constructionism. Among Goldman's central concepts to explain this theory are the two concepts of ‘meaningful structure’ and ‘worldview’. The meaningful structure shows the interrelationship of the components of a literary work and the worldview of a meaningful whole of norms and values. One of the works that the application of the theory of developmental constructionism is useful in its better understanding is Mehr va Mah poem, due to having a coherent structural pattern. This poem is one of the outstanding works of the 10th -century poet Jamali Dehlavi. In this regard, the present study seeks to answer the question of how the meaningful structure and worldview of Mehr va Mah is in line with the inclusive social platforms of the work. Examining this poem in the framework of the theory of developmental constructivism shows that the main social bases of the poet's era in the conceptual system, spatial elements, the systematic pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the system are the creators of its meaningful structure. They have appeared as artistic creations - not a mirror reflection of social events. These elements in a dialectic relationship with each other show the worldview governing the work. Introduction The current research seeks to answer the question of how the meaningful structure and worldview of the Mehr va Mah poem have been created, in accordance with the social foundations of this work. Based on the hypothesis of this research, despite the fact that this poem tells the story of the love between the prince of Badakhshan and the daughter of the king of Mulk Mina, and the poet did not directly reflect the social situation in this story, but the poet's imagination has created a coherent structure that is compatible with the social contexts of the time of creation. During the creation of the poem, the spiritual, social, and economic bases of Muslims compared to believers in other popular religions in India, especially Hindus, were considered superior. And this issue has caused the formation of a bipolar system of values in the society of the poet. In this poem, many contrasts were created in the conceptual system, spatial elements, the pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the work, which structurally shows the worldview that governs the work. Also, the spread of mysticism and the mutual relationship between the government and mystics during the compilation of this poem played a significant role in the formation of the components that make up the meaningful structure and worldview of the work. Materials and Methods The general method of this research is based on theoretical and library studies. Moreover, the works of Lucien Goldman and articles and books related to his theory are the bases of this study. Research Findings In Mehr va Mah poem, despite the fact that the romantic theme and mystical references of the work are the basis for the combination of opposite categories, due to the adaptation of the conceptual system of the work to the social ideological structure, there is no room for mixing and intermingling of categories. The structure of the spatial relations of the story has been manifested in the form of heaven-like and hell-like places. In other words, all the places in this poem have been compared to the final position of the Sharia-compliant or infidels in Islamic ideology. The expansion of the influence of the sheikhs and mystical dynasties among the general public and the ruling class has been one of the characteristics of the society in the given time frame. The structure of human relationships that arose after these relationships has caused the formation of a systematic network of relationships between the characters in this poem. This network of communication is established between the king and the mystic along with other human relationships. In this poem, social contradictions, religious conflicts and ideologies are manifested not in their direct expression during the theme and content of the story, but in the description of nature, characters, and various phenomena. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Mehr va Mah poem, like literary works that have unity and richness, has a coherent structural pattern emerging from the social foundations of the work. According to Goldman's point of view, in this narrative system, the ruling worldview has been formed through the coherent structure of the conceptual system, spatial elements, the systematic pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the work. With respect to the meaningful structure of the conceptual system, the system of dual oppositions of concepts in Mehr va Mah poem forms a part of the meaningful structure of this work, because the basic concepts of this work are all opposed to each other in a bipolar axis. Emphasizing that the protagonist is a Muslim, the poet has implicitly placed all his events and bitter encounters with existence in the other pole, i.e. disbelief, through descriptions and similes. Moreover, the contrasting structure of spatial elements in this poem has formed a coherent whole in accordance with the ideological structure of the inclusive social platform, on the basis of which the places are divided into the Islamic utopia, heaven, and the infidels' punishment place, hell. In this work, the pattern of character relationships is formed based on the model of human relations between the institution of power and the institution of Sufism in the society of the poet's time. When the poet has tied his emotions and feelings to the element of fantasy, he has established a dialectical relationship between the aesthetic structure of the work and the two pervasive social contexts of his time. the rhetorical aspects of the poem are actually a coherent expression of religious contrasts and the prevalence of mysticism in the society of the poet's work when describing the lover, nature, elements, and different situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rai Rayan Anand Ram Lahori (1107-1164 A.H.), known as ‘Mukhlis’, is one of India's great Hindu poets and writers. Apart from Diwan poems, his important writings in various fields of lexicography, biography writing, chronicle writing, memoir writing, and travelogue writing have been left by him. Mukhlis’ Diwan is a collection of his Persian poems and Rekhta, manuscripts of which are kept in Reza Library (Rampur, India), Moulana Azad Library (Aligarh, India), and British Museum Library (London), and the authors have corrected it and added notes on it. In his Diwan, there is the use of some Indian words that are less common in other people's poems, as well as the use of some Persian and Arabic words with a meaning other than what is common in Iranian Persian, and the reflection of some Indian customs. In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate and report the reflection of such words and rituals in the Mukhlis’ poems and to answer the question of how much India and the Indian culture is reflected in the Persian poems of this Persian-speaking Indian Hindu poet. This research is applied in the direction of lexicography, cultural research, and lexicology in the Indian and Persian languages and literature. Introduction Rai Rayan Anand Ram Lahori, mostly referred to as "Anand Ram Mukhlis" in the books of biography and history, was sometimes separated from Mukhlis Kashani by the name of Mukhlis Lahori. In poetry, he was a student of Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedil (d. 1720) - the pinnacle of Indian style - and also one of the students and then one of the very close friends and companions of Siraj ul Din Ali Khan Arezoo (d. 1756) - a well-known Indian poet, writer, and scientist. He had strong ties with other poets and scientists of his time, especially Hazin Lahiji (d. 1766 AD). His works are Diwan Poems, Mirat ul Istelah, Chamanistan Sokhn, Roqaat, Karname Eshgh, Hangameh Eshgh, Pari Khane, Badaye va Vaqaye, Tazkerat ul Shoara, Savane ul Ahval, Rahat ul Afras. Mukhlis’ Diwan is a collection of Persian poems written by him. His compositions include 500 sonnets, 150 quatrains, several historical articles with historical values, and several scattered verses in the Urdu language. It is no wonder a poet like Mukhlis, whose mother language and culture are Indian, and Persian language and culture is his second language and culture, sometimes uses the words of his native language in his Persian poems, especially where his words are inspired by his native culture. It is on this basis that not only Indian Persian speakers but also Iranian Persian speakers who went to India, sometimes used Indian words in their compositions. However, some people did not like this work and did not consider it correct, and this point of view became the subject of debates about the legitimacy or wrongness of this method. Khan Arezoo made the twenty-seventh chapter of his book Mosmer for this special discussion and issued a fatwa on its authenticity. However, he considered it to be too much and he considered excesses to be unacceptable (Mosmer, p. 153). As he spoke in 28 chapters about the manipulations of Persian speakers in Indian vocabulary and Mukhlis, who is Arezoo's student, he repeated the teacher's fatwa in Mirat ul Istelah and considered the injustice to be characteristic of unripe and novices: Some loved ones believe that it is not right to use Indian words in Persian poems, don’t accept; because these things are straiting (sic.) for the unbelievers and beginners, and the people of power and talent are free... (Mukhlis-Lahori, p. 418, 447) Based on this belief, Mukhlis used Indian words in his poems without going too far, especially in places where his speech was based on Indian culture and there was no word to express it in Persian. Apart from these, there are some Persian words in his speech that are either not used in Iranian Persian or are used in other meanings; therefore, they can be misleading and deceptive for Iranians. It should be mentioned that such usages also arose from the fact that Persian is his second language and not from the language of ordinary people, i.e. the original speakers, who learned more from books and the language of poets and writers, and this is the background to Persian in vocabulary. Also, in the structure, sometimes changes are found in Iranian Farsi. The transformations open the way for protest and criticism of some Persian writers and on the other hand, some consider him innocent in these transformations. Because whoever learns the language not by hearing and from the language of normal and common speakers, but by analogy and from books and diwan, will inevitably undergo some transformations. Since there is no space to examine this debate here, we will leave it in its place and skip it by mentioning a report by Khan Arezoo in Mosmer: Some of the poets of India said to one of the poets of Iran: Mullah! You have learned Farsi from your elders and your teachers like Khaqani and Anwari (Arezoo, p. 31). Materials and Methods: In this research, our main sources are the manuscripts of Diwan Mukhlis of Lahore. We have given the complete and correct definitions of these words in three different sections (i.e. Indian vocabulary, Farsi or Arabic words with different or unusual meanings, and Indian customs after extracting Indian or Persian and Arabic words that have different and unusual meanings using inductive and library methods, especially using dictionaries and words. Research Findings The results of the study show that sometimes the same words have different meanings in two different languages, and this issue has been evident in the Diwan of Mukhlis Lahori. The traces of the poet's native language and native culture are always evident in writing poetry in a second language, and this is also the case in the Diwan of Mukhlis Lahori. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that: 1) Mukhlis Lahori, a Persian-speaking Indian Hindu, one of the worthy students of Bedil Dehlavi and Khan Arezoo, was a capable poet and writer who has made the Persian language and culture forever indebted to him with the useful and important works he created in various fields. 2) Since he is sincerely Hindu and Indian when he composes and writes in Farsi, consciously or unconsciously, he takes advantage of his native words and culture and puts them in his Farsi poems. 3) Since Indian Farsi has differences from Iranian Farsi and Mukhlis learned Persian mostly from Persian texts and not from natives of Iran. Sometimes in his words, he uses words that are characteristic of literary and ancient Persian texts and in standard Persian. Iranians do not use these words in everyday language 4) There are differences in the meanings of some words in Persian and Hindi, thus knowledge is necessary for a better understanding of the sincere poetry of Lahori and his contemporaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dowalrānī Xezerkhān tells the love story of Xezer (xażer) Khān, Ala-edin khalji’s son, and the princess of Gogojrāt named Dīveldī. This Masnavi written in the poet’s late life comprises two parts. The first part was written at the request of Xezer Khaan in 715/1315 and the second part, including 319 extra verses about murders of Khalji's prince and his brothers, was appended between 720 & 721/1320 & 1321. The poetic language of this historical tragedy is mature, simple, pleasant, and free from conventional conservatism. Multiple literary compositions, simple but skillful illustrations, Amr Khusraw’s special subject headings, and new styles on writing DahNameh are the most outstanding particularities of Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān. None of Amr Khusraw’s historical Masnavis have as much special names as Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān, including good historical, cultural, political, geographical, and social information about the history of the rulers of India, especially Khalji dynasty, their methods of government, political relations, prince's choice, royal wedding, names of people, places, and positions, and also government officials. Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān is the only work of Amr Khusraw, which has a version belonging to the poet's lifetime. This manuscript under the number 178 is preserved in Arg Library of the Republic of Afghanistan. Another feature of the book is illumination of the new aspects of Amr Khusraw’s life and thoughts, as well as mentioning of his son’s name, Ein-ud-dīn Mobārak, and the poet's story of desertion from Mongols. Introduction Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān tells the love story of Xezerkhān, Ala-edin khalji’s son, and a Rajput princess named Dīveldī. This Masnavi that was written in the poet’s late life is comprised of two parts. The first part was written at the request of Xezerkhān in 715/1315 and the second part, including 319 extra verses about the murders of Khalji's prince and his brothers, was appended between 720 & 721/1320 & 1321. This poem, which is one of the most prominent works of Amr Khusraw Dihlav, indicates his real life and thoughts more than his other works. This study aimed to probe such a neglected and valuable work as Amr Khusraw’s.Material & Methods By reading Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān and collecting the information mentioned in the book, such as special names, political relations, and dates, and studying the history of Khalji dynasty, the authors tried to present a relatively comprehensive description of historical, literary, cultural, and social values of the Masnavi. Discussion of Results & Conclusions  Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān was the closest work to Amr Khusraw’s life and thoughts.  A separate part of this Masnavi was allocated to celebrate the rulers of India, especially Khalji dynasty extending Islam.  Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān contained special names of people, places, and positions, which were historically very important.  This Masnavi was the only source of information about Xeżerkhān’s biography.  Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān was full of multiple literary compositions, new expressions, and simple yet skillful illustrations.  The verses contained historical, literary, cultural, and social information about Khalji’s dynasty;  Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān illuminated new aspects of the name, life, and thoughts of Xezerkhaan’s son, who was held in captivity;  Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān was the only work of Amr Khusraw, which had a version belonging to the poet's lifetime.  Making use of new styles in writing Dah-Nameh and Barat al-Istehlall (a kind of stylistic device) had made Dowalrānī Kheżerkhān different from Amr Khusraw’s other works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The arrival of Britain in India under the cover of the East India Company at the beginning of the 17th century led to the country’s gaining access to the legendary financial resources in the subcontinent. However, with the British presence in India, the Zoroastrian community of this country, known as the Parsis, also underwent a significant economic transformation. Evidence of the increase in the wealth of the Parsis after the establishment of the British East India Company in the subcontinent is that in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the capital possessed, they set up numerous and large factories in India. Were there any special relations in the economic and professional field between the Parsis of India and the company? This is the question that the present study seeks to answer. In this study, using related historical sources, including works about the Parsis of India as well as compilations about the beginning and implementation of the British East India Company, the reasons for the positive perception of the company leaders of the Parsis are examined using a descriptive-analytical approach. Then, by reviewing the professional life of the Parsis, in two important ports of Surat and Bombay, which were the main points of contact with the company’s employees, examples of the Parsis services to the British East India Company and the privileges donated to the Persis leaders by the British are recounted and analyzed. The results show that the Parsis cooperation with the British government representatives in India was not limited to economic fields and that the British also had the assistance of the Zoroastrian community in the political arena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Devalrani and Khizrkhan Masnavi by Amir Khosrow Dihlavi, composed in 715 (Hijri lunar), not only contains awakening points about history and the community and context of India in the seventh and early eighth century (Hijri lunar), but also includes valuable information about the uses of the Persian language and its lexicon in that particular period and area. Amir Khosrow Dihlavi (651-725 Hijri lunar) is the most well-known and outstanding Persian poet in the Indian subcontinent who has left numerous and various works as heritage. One of the significant features of his poems is the use of rare and new word-formation. If we take a random look at the entries of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, below some of the entries, there are some pieces of evidence of the poems of Amir Khosrow as well as the writers and orators before him. We can even find entries with exclusive evidence from Amir Khosrow’s poems. Additionally, some traces of his morphological innovations have been found in the works of poets and writers after him. Like Hafiz and Mohtasham Kashani, who have used ‘aeeneh ru’ and ‘vahdat abad’ in their sonnets, respectively, Bidel Dehlavi has also used ‘niaz andish’. Jami has used the word ‘belasanj’ and Orfi Sharazi and Qudsi Mashhadi have used ‘ragham sanji’ and ‘faramush gashtegan’ in their sonnets. These all have already been used by Amir Khosrow in Devalrani and Khizrkhan (the first three words), qeran sa’deyn (the fourth mentioned word), ayine-ye eskandari (the fifth word) and in a sonnet from qurat-ul-kamal (the sixth). Nevertheless, so far there have been few lexical analyses of the works of Amir Khosrow Dihlavi though, in some literary research, the works of Amir Khosrow have been occasionally examined to some extent. Among these studies is the one entitled ‘An examination of some influential Indian words in the Persian poetry’ by Rezayi Baghbidi. In this study, Baghbidi made an etymological analysis of some words found in Persian texts and provided examples for each word from the well-known Persian poets. Among these examples are some verses from Amir Khosrow. In contrast to the study by him, Salim Neysari made a comprehensive analysis of the lexical innovations in Amir Khosrow’s poems in an article entitled ‘Innovations of Amir Khosrow Dihlavi in combining Persian words’. He set ‘Noh Sepehr’ (nine heavens) Masnavi as the basis of his work and the result of his work was a list of the compounds and words used in this Masnavi for which there is either no entry in Dehkhoda Dictionary (28 cases) or there is an entry but no examples (nine cases) or there are both an entry and examples from the works of Amir Khosrow (two cases). The present study is an attempt to select and introduce rare and new words from Devalrani and Khizrkhan and its innovative word combinations and to examine Amir Khosrow’s word-combination way to show that this well-known Persian poet in the Indian subcontinent has been successful in creating new compounds. In addition, considering the fact that some of the existing word combinations in this poem have no entries and examples in the most important Persian dictionary, i.e. Dehkhoda Dictionary, the present study also seeks to introduce these new words and word combinations to be used in this dictionary and in the future lexical analysis studies. It should be noted that Devalrani and Khizrkhan is one of the romantic-historical masnavis of Amir Khosrow. The subject of this masnavi is about the love that KhizrKhan, the son of Sultan Ala’eddin Muhammad Khalaji, had for Diveldi, daughter of Raay Karan (ruler of Gujarat). Amir Khosrow composed this romantic poem in 4519 verses in the prosodic weight of Musadas-e Mahzoof/Maqsoor in 715 (Hijri lunar). In this study, first the whole poem was studied and 240 words and compounds that qualified as new and novel were selected. Then, reviewing different poetry and prose books by poets and authors who lived before the age of Amir Khosrow, 125 words and word combinations, which had been already used in these texts were put aside. For this purpose, in addition to searching the digital version of the Dehkhoda Dictionary and digital library of Noor and Noormags database, and the Ganjoor website, various textbooks in print were also searched including Tafsir-e Nasafi, Koush-nameh, Monsha’at-e Khaqani, Ali-nameh, Loqat-e Fors, Sha’eran-e Bi-divan, Mersad ol-Ebad, Nafthat ol-Masdoor, Faramarz-nameh, Tarikh ol-Vozara, Sandbadnameh, Divan-e Najib od-Din Jorbazeqani, etc… . The results of analysis revealed a final number of 115 words and compounds not used in the works before Devalrani. These words were classified into different groups as follows: Group A: words or compounds for which there is no entry in Dehkhoda dictionary or there is an entry but the meaning intended by Amir Khosrow cannot be found in Dehkhoda dictionary (85 cases); Group B: words and compounds with entries in the Dehkhoda Dictionary but no examples (19 cases); Group C: words and compounds with entries in the dictionary and examples from Devalrani and Khizrkhan (four cases); Group D: words and compounds for which there are examples from the poets after Amir Khosrow (five cases); and finally Group E: words the meanings of which have been provided in the Dehkhoda Dictionary but with examples from the verses of other works of Amir Khosrow (two cases). The results show that Devalrani and Khizrkhan contains a number of unique and novel words and word combinations that not only reveal the poet’s skill and talent in producing new words but also reflect the lexical environment of the Persian language in India at the end of the seventh and early eighth century (Hijri lunar). Furthermore, a part of the lexical benefits of these sets of words includes the unique names and proper nouns used in this text. Out of these names, 11 names are Indian proper names used to refer to ethnicities and groups, social titles, carriers and riding animals, musical instruments, flowers and plants, one of the gods of the ancient India, and also materials and clothes. Besides these Indian proper names, there are a number of Persian names and proper names related to the living environment in India in this poem. These names also refer to ethnic groups, a type of riding animal, one of the coins being used at that time, a type of material, two types of flower and plant, and one of the partners. Additionally, an alternative word is used for riddle and spy news. In addition to these words, this romantic-historical masnavi has preserved some unique word combinations within it; words combinations that the poet has created using 31 non-repetitive (unique) methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]