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Objectives　Many local governments and elementary and junior high schools in Japan have conducted a "greeting campaign". This has been done in order to activate communication among local residents, and to instill public spirit and sociability in students' minds. However, few studies have explored the significance of greeting campaigns. The present study investigates greeting in neighborhoods and its relationship with students' spontaneous greeting behavior. The study also seeks to understand the quantity of greeting in daily life and its association with a student's community attachment and helping behavior.Methods　A self-completion questionnaire survey was conducted with 1,346 students studying in the fourth and higher grades at elementary schools, and 1,357 students in the first and second grade at junior high schools. There were 2,692 valid respondents. We performed the following analyses using the data of elementary school students and junior high school students separately. A partial correlation analysis was conducted wherein gender and grade were introduced as control variables. This analysis tested the correlation between the frequency of being greeted by surrounding people and the frequency of greeting by students, of their own accord. A path analysis that tested the relationship between students' greeting behavior, their attachment to residential areas, and helping behavior was also conducted.Results　The results of the partial correlation analysis revealed that there was a positive correlation between the frequency of being greeted by surrounding people and the frequency of greeting by students, of their own accord, regardless of gender and grade. Moreover, the results of the path analysis revealed that the frequency of being greeted was positively associated with community attachment and that the frequency of students' spontaneous greeting behavior was positively associated not only with community attachment but also with helping behavior. The goodness of model fit was high for both the data of elementary school students as well as the data of junior high school students.Conclusion　We found that exchanging greetings with surrounding people in daily life enhanced students' attachment to the community. In particular, we showed that students' spontaneous greeting behavior led to their helping behavior, which supports the significance of recommending greeting at home, school, or in the local community. Since there was a correlation between the frequency of being greeted and the frequency of greeting willingly, we consider that actions of surrounding adults become important to help students acquire spontaneous greeting behavior.

The purpose of this study was to translate the Experience of Close Relationship-Relationship Structure (ECRRS) and evaluate its validity. In study 1 (N = 982), evidence based internal structure (factor structure, internal consistency, and correlation among sub-scales) and evidence based relations to other variables (depression, reassurance seeking and self-esteem) were confirmed. In study 2 (N = 563), evidence based on internal structure was reconfirmed, and evidence based relations to other variables (IWMS, RQ, and ECR-GO) were confirmed. In study 3 (N = 342), evidence based internal structure (test-retest reliability) was confirmed. Based on these results, we concluded that ECR-RS was valid for measuring adult attachment style.

The purposes of the present study were (a) to use both a relational-anxiety Go/No-Go Association Task (GNAT) and an avoidance-of-intimacy GNAT in order to assess an implicit Internal Working Model (IWM) of attachment; (b) to verify the effects of both measured implicit relational anxiety and implicit avoidance of intimacy on information processing. The implicit IWM measured by GNAT differed from the explicit IWM measured by questionnaires in terms of the effects on information processing. In particular, in subliminal priming tasks involving with others, implicit avoidance of intimacy predicted accelerated response times with negative stimulus words about attachment. Moreover, after subliminally priming stimulus words about self, implicit relational anxiety predicted delayed response times with negative stimulus words about attachment.

The purposes of this study were (1) to identify healthy and unhealthy patterns of coping strategies after bereavement among spouses of cancer patients and 2) to explore the characteristics of patients and spouses associated with these patterns of coping strategies. The participants were 821 bereaved individuals whose spouses had died at the National Cancer Center Hospital East. Three patterns of coping strategies after bereavement were found: "Distraction Focused" (healthy), "Continuing Bonds Focused" (unhealthy), and "General Coping" (almost healthy). Two strategies for improving the unhealthy coping patterns of "Continuing Bonds Focused" were (1) enhancing "Distraction" and reducing "Continuing Bonds" for achieving "Distraction Focused" (healthy) and (2) enhancing both "Distraction" and "Social Sharing/Reconstruction" for achieving "General Coping" (almost healthy). The patients' characteristics associated with the bereaved spouses' coping strategy of "Continuing Bonds Focused" were "under 65 years", "history of psychiatric consultation", "duration of last hospital admission was less than one week", and "time since cancer diagnosis to death was less than one year". These four characteristics of the deceased patients were considered to be risk factors for spouses who would utilize unhealthy coping patterns after bereavement.

Moderating effects of group type on the relationship between in-group social values and group identity were investigated. Previous research has indicated that values attached to the in-group, such as its status, privileges, and power, lead to increased group identity. However, these studies have not investigated the role of the type of in-groups on this effect. We conducted an experiment that manipulated the in-group type. In the common-identity type of in-group condition, formation of in- and out-groups on the basis of social categorization was established. In the common-bond type of in-group condition, interactions between the group members were conducted. Results indicated that in the former condition, the degree of in-group social values affected group identity; however, this effect was not found in the latter condition. These results suggest that social values of the in-group have an asymmetric effect on group identity, depending upon the in-group type as a common-identity or common-bond group.

This study examined the determinants of social withdrawal using data from a survey by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Office for Youth Affairs and Public Safety (2008). In addition, this study identified young people who showed an affinity for social withdrawal although they were not in a state of withdrawal, and examined the determinants of an affinity for social withdrawal. The results of stepwise discriminant analysis showed that factors such as social phobia, depression, violence, and emotional bonds with family differentiated between the general youth group and the social withdrawal group and the "affinity group". Social phobia, violence, and refusal to be interfered in self-decision making differentiated between the social withdrawal group and the "affinity group". This study shows that an "affinity group" should be cared as well as an actual withdrawal group.

Perfectionism is usually reported to have adverse affects on psychological health, but recent multidimensional research indicated that a "tendency to set high personal standards" is weakly correlated with reduced depressiveness. The present study categorized subjects using a cluster analysis with factors closely related to psychological health such as adult attachment styles and perfectionism, and examined each factor's contributions to psychological health. Among subjects with high personal standards, the study found a group with a secure attachment style who are psychologically adaptive and another group with a non-secure attachment style who are maladaptive. The results suggest that setting high personal standards by itself does not promote psychological health, but rather that there is an interaction with other factors such as preoccupation with one's mistakes and doubting one's own actions which also influence psychological health.

This study examined how daughter's reported quality of their mother-daughter relationships during childhood and adulthood is related to their psychological well-being (depressive symptoms and self-esteem). A cross-sectional sample of 363 women, age 26 to 35 years, completed questionnaires. The association between the quality of daughters' relationships with their mothers and their psychological well-being depended on the daughters' marital and parental status. Regression estimates suggested that among single daughters and married daughters with children, childhood attachment dimensions (avoidance and anxiety) significantly contributed to psychological well-being, even after controlling for the effects of current closeness and excessive dependence. Current closeness, and excessive care seeking and care giving to their mother contributed to the psychological well-being of single daughters and married daughters without children, even after controlling for the effects of childhood attachment.

The review was carried out on clinical pictures, premorbid character, fixation point, and family dynamics of depressive adolescents. Depression is one of the most common, but still not clearly defined, emotional reactions in adolescence. Object loss as a result of emotional development would exercise great influence on the still developing psychic structure. Through this review, the author has arrived at the conclusion that, the loss of infantile object, affecting the individual at different developmental levels, produced different clinical manifestations. The author takes into account not only the object loss but also the degree of ego integration of the adolescent individual, and family as a container.

We recognized that several traumatized individuals re-lived the danger associated with trauma on recollecting the original traumatic event; moreover, some of them experienced a similar traumatic event. In this article, we report these cases and show that this tendency is exhibited more frequently in victims of sexual abuse. Van der Kolk, who treated veteran soldiers who served in Vietnam, became aware of the compulsion of patients to repeat their trauma through treatment. He expressed this repetition compulsion as re-enactment or re-victimization of past traumatic experiences, showing how the trauma was repeated at a behavioral level in his article. After their treatment, he published his research on traumatized people as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the 1980's. Nowadays, generally, this repetition compulsion behavior is not included as a symptom of PTSD in Japan. Van der Kolk insisted that these repetition compulsions caused further suffering for victims and their relations. We also thought that these repetition compulsions can disturb rehabilitation. In our article, we expressed the condition as active compulsion repetition. We considered that it should be distinguished from passive conditions including instructive symptoms such as repetitive nightmare and flashback. We also represented how active compulsion was repeated in our cases, which was not consistent with the concept of PTSD on DSM-IV. When the active repetition compulsion was acted, we noticed that patients showed depersonalization. We thought that an understanding of the depersonalization following reenactment and re-vicitimization was important in order to comprehend the mechanism of PTSD.

A multi-method approach was used to examine whether and how companion animals (CA) affect subjective well-being and social networks of Japanese people. In Study 1, a mail survey with a probability sample of 1250 Japanese adults over 40 years old showed that (1) female owners' attachment to CA negatively correlated with subjective well-being, and (2) although younger (under 65) CA owners had more close friends than non-owners, this tendency was reversed for those over 65. In Study 2, in-depth interviews with 27 adults showed that (1) female CA owners reported lower subjective well-being than non-owners, (2) although CA owners were generally successful in interacting with strangers through CA-related behaviors such as dog-walking, those relationships were unlikely to become close, and (3) in contrast to the owners' tendency to portray themselves in positive ways, most non-owners described CA owners negatively, such as being lonely or bad-mannered. Based on the present findings, which sharply contradict those of previous studies in the western societies, future issues are discussed.

The perinatal period is important for establishing the mother-to-infant bond. Especially, psychiatric disorders during this period, such as postnatal depression, significantly affect mother-to-infant attachment. Recently, the concept of "Bonding Disorder" has been proposed to identify attachment disturbances between mothers and infants. Here, we report a case of bonding disorder effectively treated by Naikan therapy. The patient was a 28-year-old female. She suffered from depression and anxiety one week after giving birth, and then began to have negative feelings foward her child. First, she felt a lack of attachment, claiming for example, "I cannot feel my child is cute." Her negative feelings developed in to strong refusal, which made her say, "I want to give my child up for adoption." After admittance to our hospital, her depressive symptoms improved by adequate treatment with anti-depressants, but her attachment disturbances continued. Because of her character and inflexible child care, she tended to suffer from a mental conflict. She underwent treatment with intensive Naikan therapy and her attachment to her child improved. Mother-to-infant attachment is thought to be influenced by how the mother was brought up. Naikan therapy reflects the relationships with his/her relatives from childhood up to the present, providing an important element concerning attachment formation. Through Naikan therapy, mothers may recall that they themselves have received love from their parents, which strengthens the feeling of basic trust. Consequently, they are encouraged to love their children. Therefore, Nikan therapy is suggested to be one of the effective therapies to treat attachment disturbances between mothers and infants.

This study aimed at examining how adult attachment styles as believes and expectations about self and others affected emotional recognition of facial expressions. In this study, hypotheses were framed based on the perspective of attachment dimensions. One hundred and sixty one undergraduates observed positive, negative, and neutral facial expressions as stimulus, and rated the extent to which each stimuli expressed several kinds of emotion. The main results were as follows. Generally, either anxious or avoidant individuals were less likely to perceive positive emotion (happy) from facial expressions, and anxious and less avoidant individuals perceived other-oriented negative emotions (anger, disgust, and contempt). In addition, avoidant individuals were less likely to perceive positive emotion from positive facial expressions. On the other hand, from negative facial expressions, anxious and less avoidant individuals were more likely to perceive other-oriented negative emotions, and anxious individuals were less likely to perceive positive emotion. The results were discussed from the perspective of adult attachment theory.

This study attempted to adapt into Japanese the Adult Attachment Style Scale (ECR: Experiences in Close Relationships inventory) that was constructed by Brennan, Clark, and Shaver (1998), based on 14 existing scales. Of 387 respondents, 231 who reported having been or are currently involved in romantic relationships were employed for final analysis. We examined validities of the Japanese version of ECR in the two ways: (1) Examining the correlations between "Anxiety" and Self-esteem scale by Rosenberg (1965) which were theoretically related to Self-view, and the correlations between "Avoidance" and Other-view scale by Kato (1999b) which were theoretically related to Other-view; (2) whether or not ECR represents the features of four attachment styles as classified by Relationship Questionnaire (RQ; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). The results supported our expectations. This Japanese version of ECR was demonstrated to have adequate psychometric properties in validity and reliability.

This study investigated time series changes and relationships of affects, cognitions, and behaviors immediately, a few days, and a week after anger episodes. Two hundred undergraduates (96 men, and 104 women) completed a questionnaire. The results were as follows. Anger intensely aroused immediately after anger episodes, and was rapidly calmed as time passed. Anger and depression correlated in each period, so depression was accompanied with anger experiences. The results of covariance structure analysis showed that aggressive behavior was evoked only by affects (especially anger) immediately, and was evoked only by cognitions (especially inflating) a few days after the episode. One week after the episode, aggressive behavior decreased, and was not influenced by affects and cognitions. Anger elicited all anger-expressive behaviors such as aggressive behavior, social sharing, and object-displacement, while depression accompanied with anger episodes elicited only object-displacement.

We conducted this study in order to examine the relationships between early adult attachment styles and social adjustment, such as mental health and self-perception in the context of close relationships. Questionnaires were administered, 460 undergraduates participated in the study, and their data were analyzed. Results showed that secure attachment was positively related to better mental health and positive self-perception in close relationships. In contrast, insecure attachment, especially ambivalent style, was negatively related to social adjustment. As for attachment dimensions, "Anxiety" was significantly associated with negative states in mental health, such as anxiety, insomnia, and sever depression, and lower self-perceived confidence in close relationships, and "Avoidance" with low self-perceived sociability and attractiveness in close relationships. These results were discussed in terms of the theoretical concepts of adult attachment styles.

To date, many researchers in Japan have been working on the assumption that the cause of autistic spectrum disorders is attributable to some disorder in the ability of the child. We have been working on the premise that the autistic spectrum disorders are brought about by some form of relationship disturbances in early infancy, and have been attempting to validate this hypothesis through early intervention. We have been examining the developmental process of affective communication in infants with autistic spectrum disorders. We postulated approach-avoidance motivational conflict (Richer, 1993) as the primary factor impeding development of affective communication, focusing therapeutic intervention on this perspective. As a result, attachment behavior was remarkably improved in the children. Through a clinical course of an example, the problem pertaining to the process of acquiring the function of language cognition is discussed. Starting with the concept that the meaning of any given object is not stipulated as a unique existence, but by context, it is pointed out that in order to relate the meaning of some object to a child, sharing with the child "which" attributes of the object the child should focus upon and "how" it should be dealt with are indispensable. This is then followed by discussion of how this cannot be accomplished without deepening of affective communication upon the basis of attachment formation.

The purpose of this study was to assess individual differences in attachment representation. They were assessed, not through direct verbal reports, but indirectly as indicated in a projective test. The test required subjects to tell their impressions of pictures, which depicted daily, routine parent-child interactions. A series of pictures were developed for story-making task, which was named PARS (Picture Attachment Related Study). Three hundred and two (302) undergraduate and vocational students were asked to see the pictures, and freely imagine the situation, think what they would feel, and create the further story. They were then to recall their own experiences with their parents, and fill out a questionnaire of how they see their relationship with others. It was found that those who made a trustful PARS story recalled their own attachment experiences in an autonomous way, and had lower distrust in their relationship with others. Thus, results of the projective test were shown to reflect individual personal attachment experiences, and the test be useful.

The purpose of this study was to describe the experiences of new mothers in peer support groups. The subjects were 14 mothers, each with children under 12 months of age. The mothers were members of one of three support groups either organized by public health nurses in a health center or midwives in two birthing centers. The data was collected through participant observations and interviews. Analysis of the data-the group experiences of mothers-allowed for categorization into three areas of support: 1) reassurance of oneself as a mother, 2) gaining power to form a relationship with the baby, and 3) reconstruction of one's own personal life. Results of the study showed that the support group was a source of empowerment for the new mothers. The elements of empowerment are indicated in the listed categories.

The relationship of time perception, maternal tasks, and maternal role behavior was examined in 140 pregnant Japanese women with a short-term longitudinal design. A model developed by Rubin provided the conceptual framework for this research. The Time Perception Scale. Time Production Method, and the Prefatory Maternal Response measured the study variables. Study results revealed significant differences in duration of time, time production, maternal-fetal attachment, and maternal role behavior before and after quickening(fetal movement)occurred. Medium to strong positive relationships among time orientation, maternal-fetal attachment, gratification, and maternal role behavior were found before and after movement. After quickening, a weak relationship between time orientation and duration was found. After controlling maternal-fetal attachment and gratification in pregnancy and maternal role, orientation in time perception accounted for significant amounts of variance in maternal role behavior before and after fetal movement. Results show that the process of becoming a mother, which started before quickening, increased in magnitude after fetal movement. The function of fetal movement is important in developing motherhood. In the process of becoming a mother, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects in becoming a mother are inseparable from each other. Future orientation of time perception contributes to development of maternal role behavior. Having a future orientation during pregnancy may indicate hope or positive expectation. Based on these findings, several recommendations were proposed: (a)to study further the general process of becoming a mother and the role of time perception in developing motherhood, (b)to disseminate information to the general public about the process in development of motherhood, (c)to construct theory to explain the process of becoming a mother, and(d)to conduct future research to clarify the construct of time perception and attachment.

Research on adolescents in romantic love has suggested that their heterosexual relationship may be influenced by their attachment to their mothers and to friends of the same sex. Three hundred fifty-nine college students responded to a questionnaire designed to explore this correlation. The results indicated that male sexual behavior and feelings of romantic love towards their girl friends were not influenced by the attachment to their mothers nor to their friends whereas those of the females were. Females who were involved in intimate sexual relationship had weaker attachment to their mothers; on the other hand, females who had strong romantic feelings, yet without sexual relationships, tended to have strong attachment to their friends of the same sex.

Fifty-six first born Japanese 12-month-old infants were observed in the Strange Situation and the relationship between affective responses in the preseparation episodes and patterns of attachment behaviors in the following episodes was examined. In the preseparation episodes, 18 infants were rated as displaying distress (HS) and 38 infants did not display distress (LS). HS infants were acutely distressed in the separation episodes, and did not easily recover from distress even after regaining close physical contact with mother in the reunion episodes. In contrast, LS infants did not show distress in the first separation and reunion episodes. Although they were distressed in the second separation, they recovered more easily than HS infants in the second reunion episode. Resistant behaviors in the second reunion were observed more frequently and were stronger in HS infants than LS infants. Eighty-three percent of B4 and C were HS infants and 84% of B were LS infants. These results indicated that the affective responses in the preseparation episodes could predict the patterns of attachment behaviors in the following episodes.