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Abstract Humans utilize the mirror neuron system to understand and predict others' actions. However, the ontogeny of the mirror neuron system remains unknown. Whether mirror neuron function is an innate trait or whether mirror neurons acquire their sensorimotor matching properties ontogenetically remains to be clarified. In this paper, I review the ontogenetic theory of the mirror neuron system. I then discuss the functioning of the mirror neuron system in the context of social cognitive abilities, which are unique to humans. Recently, some researchers argue that it is too early to interpret the function of mirror neurons as an understanding of the underlying psychological states of others. They imply that such functioning would require inferential cognitive processes that are known to involve areas outside the mirror neuron system. Filling in this missing link may be the key to elucidating the unique ability of humans to understand others' actions.

A post-stimulus time-histogram (PSTH) technique has been used for studying spinal reflex arcs in humans. In the PSTH technique, effects of the reflex arcs on the motoneuron excitability are examined by analyzing changes in firing probabilities of a motor unit after conditioning stimuli to afferent fibers. Recent studies with the PSTH technique have demonstrated reflex arcs mediated by low threshold muscle afferent fibers (group I afferents) among muscles in the human upper limb. The results have shown several differences of the reflex arcs between the human upper limb and animal forelimb. This paper has described the PSTH technique. Comparisons of the reflex arcs between humans and animals have been also described.

In this paper, the autopsy findings of a 78-year-old man mimicking primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) are reported. His clinical symptoms were slowly progressive spasticity, pseudobulbar palsy and character change. He died of sepsis 32 months after protracting the disease. The autopsy revealed severe atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes. The histological findings were severe neuronal loss with gliosis in the precentral gyrus and left temporal lobe tip, loss of Betz cell, prominent demyelination throughout of the corticospinal tract, axonal swelling in the cerebral peduncule, severe degeneration of the amygdala, mild degeneration of the Ammon horn, normal substantia nigra, a few neuronal cells with central chromatolysis in the facial nerve nucleus and very mild neuronal cell loss in the spinal anterior horn. The anterior horn cell only occasionally demonstrated Bunina body by H & E and cystatin-C stainings, as well as, skein-like inclusion by ubiquitin staining. Thus, this is a case of uncommon amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) dominantly affecting the upper motor neuron including the motor cortex and temporal limbic system. In analysis of nine cases of putative primary lateral sclerosis in the literature, six cases showed loss of Betz cell in the precentral gyrus, and four cases very mild involvement of the lower motor neuron such as central chromatolysis and eosinophilic inclusion body. Degeneration of the limbic system was observed in two cases. We indicated a possible subgroup with concomitant involvement in the motor cortex and temporal lobe in motor neuron disease dominantly affecting the upper motor neuron.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the motor unit activities of the human masseter muscle during sustained the bite force at a constant level. The electrical activities recorded with surface and inserted electrodes were studied, with the following results. 1. The masseter muscle had the changes of activities in two phases as a contraction progressed. 2. In the first phase, surface EMG activities decreased and discharge frequency of motor units also decreased. 3. In the second phase, surface EMG activities increased and discharge frequency of motor units also increased. 4. In the first phase, it was suggested that the bite force was maintained by an increase in the twitch tension produced by a motor unit and that there were no recruitment of additional motor units. 5. In the second phase, it was indicated that the bite force was maintained by the recruitment of new motor units and an increase in the discharge frequency of motor units to compensate a loss of force resulted from the contractile element fatigue.