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V članku so predstavljena bronastodobna najdišča in tista na prehodu v starejšo železno dobo s prostora Zgornje Dravinjske in Savinjske doline ter Kozjanskega. V Zgornji Dravinjski dolini sta imeli v bronasti in starejši železni dobi dominantni vlogi naselbini Brinjeva gora in Ljubična nad Zbelovsko goro. Večji poudarek je namenjen Zgornji Dravinjski dolini in poznobronastodobni naselbini na Blatu pri Slovenskih Konjicah. To je bil kratkotrajen zaselek z manjšimi stavbami, s prevladujočim živinorejsko–poljedelskim gospodarstvom in z večjo ter od naselbine Blato odmaknjeno vodno jamo, ki jo interpretiramo kot kraj nepovratnega odlaganja predvsem keramičnih posod iz horizonta mlajše kulture žarnih grobišč. V jami so bili tudi večji prodniki, živalske kosti, drobci oglja in lesa, na dnu jame pa je ležalo potopljeno razmeroma dobro ohranjeno hrastovo deblo.

Članek obravnava poselitev Prekmurja v bronasti dobi na podlagi do zdaj odkritih naselbin in grobišč ter zaobsega čas okrog 1500 let. Prehodno obdobje iz bakrene v zgodnjo bronasto dobo v Prekmurju označujejo naselbinske ostaline iz kulture Somogyvár-Vinkovci. Sledi poselitev kulture Kisapostag v zgodnji bronasti dobi, ki se je v Prekmurju zaključila s horizontom pramenaste oz. licenske keramike na prehodu v srednjo bronasto dobo. Iz zgodnjega obdobja srednje bronaste dobe so bile v Prekmurju doslej odkrite le ostaline naselja na najdišču Pod Kotom – sever. Iz obdobja pozne srednje bronaste dobe in zgodnje pozne bronaste dobe pa izstopa največje naselje Pod Grunti – Pince. V pozno bronasto dobo sodijo ostaline naselbine na Novi tabli, plani žgani grobovi v Goricah pri Turnišču, depo kovinskih predmetov na najdišču Pod Kotom – jug, pred kratkim odkrita višinska naselbina na Sotinskem bregu ter grobišči na Tišini in Gornji Bistrici.

This contribution examines the Iron Age textiles (8th−4th century BCE) kept at the Dolenjski muzej in Novo mesto, Slovenia, with the aim of identifying their raw materials, technologies, functions and social significance and situating them in a wider European context. The primary textile weave identified is a wool twill, which is typical for the Hallstatt culture and Italic textile traditions. Wool quality analysis indicates a local raw material with different processing methods. Certain diachronic changes are identified in textile structural characteristics, which may be indicative of influences from other regions.

The archaeobotanical research of the Stare Gmajne pile-dwelling site included analyses of samples taken from moss remains and vessel contents, as well as wood anatomical analyses of several wooden artefacts and charcoal pieces.The moss of two forest species and other macroremains provide evidences of human diet and gathering as well as surrounding vegetation in the Eneolithic (3521−3366 cal BC). The results show the inhabitants collected wild plants and cultivated crops, with six cultivars identified. For the wooden artefacts, they show the bow was made of yew and the rings of hazel. They also reveal significant differences between the two excavated trenches and between different stratigraphic units. Further research of the systematically sampled sediments will address questions concerning the possibility of detecting changes in water levels and the location of the Eneolithic settlement. What is already clear is that the organic remains in the present-day Ljubljansko barje soil are highly endangered.

V članku je predstavljeno manjše grobišče, odkrito v vasi Tišina zahodno od Murske Sobote. Najdenih je bilo 12 grobov, ki časovno sodijo v mlajše obdobje kulture žarnih grobišč. Obravnavane so grobne najdbe, tako keramično posodje kot tudi drugi predmeti, in sicer nakit, železna noža in drugo. Med njimi izstopa okrašena bronasta tulasta sekira. Najdbe iz grobov kažejo podobnost z grobovi ruške skupine kulture žarnih grobišč.

The Early Christian churches of the Late Antique hilltop settlement in Lavant (Lienz, Austria) have been investigated for almost a century. In recent years (2017–2021), a large conservation campaign took place within the ruins of the so-called Episcopal Church. During this campaign, it was possible to carry out targeted excavations inside the Early Christian church to understand the consecutive building phases and their dating better. In addition to new insights into the history of the building, several new finds also came from these excavation campaigns, providing further information about the church’s interior. In the following, all objects associated with lighting are presented.

V Julijskih Alpah, v gorah Zgornjega Posočja, je bilo v zadnjih dveh desetletjih in pol odkritih več planih najdišč kamnitih artefaktov, pripisanih mezolitiku. V članku predstavljamo dve najdišči kamnitih artefaktov na planini Leskovca v Krnskem pogorju, med seboj oddaljeni 150 metrov: Leskovca I in II. Predstavljamo površinsko zbrane najdbe in rezultate arheološkega izkopavanja na Leskovci II. Zaradi odsotnosti organskih ostankov, ki bi jih lahko zanesljivo povezali s kamnitimi artefakti, je kulturno-kronološka opredelitev obeh najdišč možna le na podlagi tipo-tehnološke analize kamnitih artefaktov. Rezultat ni enoznačen, najdišči lahko pripadata končnemu paleolitiku (epigravetjenu) ali starejšemu mezolitiku (sovterjenu).

Na Savski cesti 10 v Kranju so arheološka izkopavanja leta 2010 razkrila tri gradbene faze prazgodovinske poselitve. Ob bogatih keramičnih najdbah so bili iz vsake faze ohranjeni tudi ostanki lesenih stavb. V štirih jamah za sohe, ki pripadajo dvema stavbama, so bili najdeni kosi lesenih brun, ki so omogočili dendrokronološke analize in radiokarbonsko datiranje. Osrednji del prispevka obsega tipološko študijo keramičnega posodja. Ta je na podlagi primerjav z najdbami z drugih najdišč pokazala, da ima območje ob Savski cesti, podobno kot druge lokacije v Kranju, največ vzporednic med gradivom iz časa stopenj Ljubljana II in IIIa oz. Ha B3 in Ha C0 (v srednjeevropskem smislu). Opredelitev je nadgrajena z absolutno datacijo ostankov brun. Ta kaže, da je stavba 1A iz prve faze nastala v prvi polovici 8. st. pr. n. št. in stavba 2 druge faze najverjetneje na začetku druge polovice 8. st. pr. n. št.

V članku je predstavljeno grobišče Sumerje pri Gornji Bistrici, odkrito ob gradnji daljnovoda na trasi Cirkovce–Pince. Na izkopnem polju velikosti 40 × 40 m je bilo odkritih 80 žganih grobov. V pripravi je obširnejša monografija o grobišču, z nekaterimi analizami, ki še niso končane, zato je tu v celoti predstavljenih le nekaj izbranih grobov, dodana pa je tipološka opredelitev celotnega gradiva z osnovnimi podatki o grobišču. Uvrstimo ga lahko v čas mlajše in pozne kulture žarnih grobišč, v ruško žarnogrobiščno skupino (stopnje Ha B1 do Ha B3 po Müller-Karpejevi shemi). Ker se grobišče iz izkopnega polja širi na vse štiri strani, bi ga po velikosti domnevno lahko postavili ob bok velikim poznobronastodobnim grobiščem v Sloveniji, kot so Ruše, Pobrežje, Ljubljana, Dobova in Obrežje.

The Late Middle Bronze Age to Older Hallstatt Period necropolis in the cadastral municipality of Kainach (municipality of Wildon, Styria) was discovered in 2004 and explored in several excavation campaigns (Verein Kulturpark Hengist). In total, more than 28,000 m2 were investigated and around 240 cremation graves were discovered. To date, around 15% of the grave inventories have been fully restored, including graves 186, 226, 114, 42, 30, 93, 70 and 102 as well as grave 120 and object 266, which are presented here in chronological order. The area between the Mur and Kainach rivers was a ritual landscape that developed into a large burial area over the centuries. Graves 186 and 226 in particular are of great significance for the late Middle Bronze Age and the early/older Urnfield Period in Styria. Remarkable are the contacts to the Laugen-Melaun culture respectively to the western inner Alpine region, as evidenced by the inventory of Kainach grave 42.

Rimskodobno naselje Praetorium Latobicorum je ležalo ob pomembni itinerarski cesti Aquileia–Emona–Neviodunum–Romula–Siscia, na območju današnjega Trebnjega. Ime je dobilo po okoliškem prebivalstvu, keltskih Latobikih, ki so naseljevali tudi prostor Trebnjega. O vlogi beneficiarne postaje pričajo itinerarji, miljniki in epigrafski spomeniki. Članek obširneje obravnava jami, v kateri so bili ob gradnji novih objektov položeni posebej izbrani predmeti. Gre za zavetna zakopa simbolnih predmetov za zaščito doma in uspešno poslovanje. V preprosti jami ob livarski delavnici so bili deli hitre tehtnice, vilice za žar in krožnik, vsi predmeti izvirajo iz zgodnjerimskega obdobja. V drugi jami so bili dragocenemu kipcu Herkula pridani kuhinjski lonci, bronast zvonček, železen ključ in kamnit brus. Ta zavetna daritev je bila vkopana v 4. st. ob objekt pralnice (fullonica) ali celo barvarne (tinctoria), v katerem so se poleg številnih novcev ohranili tudi železni stilusi in delavniške svinčene etikete (tesserae plumbeae).

V prispevku so predstavljene naselbinske ostaline iz bronaste dobe, ki so jih odkrili na najdišču Slivnica 1B pred izgradnjo avtoceste A1 pri Mariboru v letih 1996 in 1997. Na podlagi analize najdb iz naselbinskih jam ugotavljam, da je bila ravnica ob vznožju Pohorja po koncu srednje bakrene dobe poseljena v prehodnem horizontu Somogyvár-Vinkovci, intenzivneje pa od horizonta Kisapostág (stopnja Bd A1) naprej. Poselitev se je nadaljevala v horizontu pramenaste keramike (Bd A2, A2/B1, morda tudi B1), kamor lahko datiramo večje število jam in tudi jam za stojke, nato pa v (manjšem obsegu) v srednji bronasti dobi in v zgodnjem žarnogrobiščnem obdobju (Bd C–Bd D; morda tudi Bd B). Hiše, grajene s stojkami, so stale v osrednjem delu najdišča, medtem ko so bile severno in južno od njih odkrite večje jame nepravilnih oblik. Rezultati datiranja 14C po postopku AMS kažejo, da je jama kulture Kisapostág iz druge polovice 3. tisočletja pr. n. št., jami iz horizonta pramenaste keramike sta okvirno iz prve tretjine 2. tisočletja pr. n. št., edina datirana jama iz horizonta Oloris-Podsmreka pa iz 15. ali 14. st. pr. n. št.

Poleti leta 1998 so pri urejanju parkirišča na Jelenovem klancu v Kranju izvedli zaščitna izkopavanja. V naravni niši pod konglomeratno steno so naleteli na depo, ki ga sestavlja več kot 400 bronastih predmetov – orožje, orodje, nakit, pločevina in ingoti ter železova žlindra in železova ruda. Predmeti v depoju so iz obdobja med 10. in 8. st. pr. n. št., ko so bili verjetno tudi odloženi. Kemična sestava predmetov, predvsem uhatih sekir, v leguri izkazuje razmeroma velike deleže svinca in v nekaj primerih tudi železa. V bližini depoja so v naselbinskih plasteh odkrili številne sočasne keramične najdbe in bronasti igli, nedaleč stran pa je bil tudi sočasen skeletni grob novorojenčka.

Utrjena višinska naselbina na Sv. Pavlu nad Vrtovinom je znana že vse od leta 1866, a je bila dolgo razumljena zgolj kot prazgodovinsko gradišče. Sondiranja v letu 1966 so potrdila obstoj poznoantične utrjene naselbine in nakazala gosto poselitev v njenem severnem delu. Lidarsko skeniranje površja, terenski obhodi in različni zračni posnetki so v zadnjem času razkrili poleg številnih manjših enoprostornih hiš na severni polovici platoja še veliko različno oblikovanih bivalnih zgradb na južni polovici. Predstavljen je pregled na najdišču vidnih obrambnih in bivalnih struktur ter pod naselbino stoječega vodnega stolpa. Pod sedanjo cerkvijo Sv. Pavla se nakazuje večja dvojna zgodnjekrščanska cerkev z dobro prepoznavnima prezbiterijema, enoladijska cerkev z narteksom in baptisterijem pa je vidna tudi na južni strani naselbine. Bivalna, sakralna in obrambna arhitektura kaže na veliko semiurbano naselbino z osrednjimi upravno-religioznimi funkcijami. V drugi polovici 5. in 6. st. se je vanjo zateklo romansko prebivalstvo Vipavske doline.

Analize človeških tkiv iz arheoloških kontekstov pomembno pripomorejo k razumevanju posameznikov in družb v preteklosti. Na primeru četvernega groba 336–339 s poznoantičnega grobišča Bled – Pristava predstavljamo potek in rezultate celostne interdisciplinarne raziskave, ki združuje nekaj pri raziskovanju skeletnih tkiv najpogosteje izvedenih analiz, rezultate teh pa povezujemo v širši arheološki in zgodovinski kontekst. Na podlagi zbranih podatkov je mogoče sklepati, da so bili štirje pokojniki, oče s hčerama in sinom, v skupni grob položeni sočasno in premišljeno, morda zaradi posebnih okoliščin ob smrti. Grobni pridatki postavijo kontekst v sredino 6. st., radiokarbonsko datiranje pa v čas 5. in prve polovice 6. st. Analize stabilnih izotopov kažejo nihanja v prehrani skozi različna življenjska obdobja, povezana s spremembo prehrane in fiziološkim stresom. Rezultati interdisciplinarne študije, izvedene na posmrtnih ostankih štirih oseb, prikazujejo, kako se različne analize dopolnjujejo in/ali med seboj potrjujejo, kako velik je njihov domet pri razumevanju življenja in smrti obravnavanih oseb ter kakšen je njihov potencial za razumevanje življenja celotnih skupnosti v določenih zgodovinskih obdobjih.

V prispevku so predstavljeni stratigrafski podatki in analiza arheoloških najdb, predvsem keramike, s kolišča Verd, odkritega leta 2022 na zahodnem robu Ljubljanskega barja. Rezultate preučevanja stratigrafskih podatkov in arheoloških najdb je v povezavi z izsledki arheozooloških, arheobotaničnih in dendrokronoloških analiz dodatno potrdilo radiokarbonsko datiranje, ki naselje okvirno postavlja v 47. stoletje pr. Kr., bržčas celo pred kolišče Resnikov prekop iz okolice Iga na drugem koncu bazena.

The paper presents the archaeological sites in the environs of the modern settlement of Bela Cerkev and the results of archaeological excavations in 2002, prior to motorway construction. Excavations at four (?) different, but contiguous locations (Dolge njive, Draga 1, Draga 2 in Draga 3) revealed and documented part of the line of the road, the masonry foundations of buildings, numerous post-built structures, a cemetery and domestic material, dating to the Roman period. The paper also considers hypotheses surrounding the location of the Roman-period roadside settlement of Crucium. It is posited that the excavation on these sites have revealed the location of the Roman roadside settlement of Crucium, which was occcupied or functioned in the period from the 1st to the 4th Centuries AD.

V bronasti dobi so od prehodnega obdobja pozne bakrenodobne kulture Somogyvár-Vinkovci pa vse do kulture žarnih grobišč obstajali različni tipi naselbin, in sicer naselbine raztresenega tipa in manjši zaselki, pogosto nanizani blizu drug drugega, ter tudi strnjene naselbine. V njih so bile stavbe razporejene polkrožno okoli osrednjega “vaškega trga”, kar dobro ilustrira tlorisna slika naselbine Pod Grunti – Pince pri Lendavi iz srednje in zgodnje pozne bronaste dobe. Med njimi pa posebej izstopajo nekatere utrjene naselbine, kot je Oloris, morda pa tudi Pod Grunti – Pince. Tudi v pozni bronasti dobi oz. v času kulture žarnih grobišč so bile običajne naselbine raztresenega gručastega tipa, a so obstajale tudi strnjene naselbine, ki pa so bile zasnovane drugače, in sicer po ortogonalnem konceptu, kot sklepamo na osnovi naselbin na Pobrežju in v Ormožu, slednja je bila tudi utrjena z nasipom in obrambnim jarkom. Čeprav so podatki o načinu pokopavanja v bronasti dobi še maloštevilni in zelo skopi, pa vendarle lahko domnevamo, da je bilo skozi ves čas – le z izjemo srednje bronaste dobe v času kulture bronastodobnih gomil – običajno sežiganje preminulih, kar naj bi veljalo tako za kulturo Somogyvár-Vinkovci kot za kulturo Kisapostag v zgodnji bronasti dobi, pa za virovitiško kulturo v pozni srednji in zgodnji pozni bronasti dobi ter seveda za kulturo žarnih grobišč v pozni bronasti dobi.

Z arheološko interpretacijo lidarskih podatkov in terenskim delom smo raziskovali obseg in tloris poznoantične naselbine. Določili smo potek obodnega zidu ter število in obliko stavb, prepoznali cisterno in cerkev. S sondiranjem smo ugotovili posamezne konstrukcijske detajle in na tlaku ene izmed stavb odkrili zoglenele ostanke kulturnih rastlin. Kronologija poselitve se opira na tipokronološko analizo predmetov; prvo zanesljivo poselitev nakazujejo predmeti iz 4. st. in z začetka 5. st., povezujemo jih z opremo vojakov in uradnikov. Največjo poselitev nakazuje veliko število arheoloških predmetov s konca 5. st. in začetka 6. st. Glede na način gradnje stavb v strnjenih nizih in omejen prostor domnevamo, da so večino prepoznanih objektov zgradili v tem obdobju. Posamezne drobne najdbe povezujemo z Germani, dele vojaške opreme oficirjev in poveljnikov ter pečat s portretom Justinijana I. pa z bizantinsko vojsko in upravo.

V prispevku obravnavamo najdiščne okoliščine ornamentiranega bronastega bodala s polkrožno zaključeno ročajno ploščo z Iga in zgodnjebronastodobno keramiko z Ljubljanskega barja. Postavljamo tezo, da je nekje na območju eneolitskih kolišč severno od Iga pričakovati tudi bronastodobno naselje in da bodalo lahko pripada temu naselju. Dejstvo, da je bilo bodalo najdeno na najdiščnem območju eneolitskega II. kolišča, je potemtakem zgolj posledica okoliščine, da se areala naselbin iz konca eneolitske in zgodnje bronaste dobe vsaj delno prekrivata. Pojasnitev, da bodalo najverjetneje ni ritualno odložena močvirska najdba, temveč je naselbinska najdba, odpira vprašanja o izvoru in pomenu več drugih arheoloških – predvsem kovinskih – najdb z Ljubljanskega barja.

V članku sta predstavljena grobova, ki sta bila na najdišču Slivnica 3B odkrita ob gradnji avtoceste Slivnica–Draženci. Na najdišču sicer prevladujejo rimskodobni ostanki, tako naselbinski kot grobovi, nekaj je bilo tudi ostankov zgodnjesrednjeveških zemljank, žarna grobova 12 in 13 pa predstavljata najstarejši najdbi. Na podlagi primerjave najdb ju lahko uvrstimo v kulturo Somogyvár-Vinkovci iz sredine 3. tisočletja pr. n. št., v prehodno obdobje med bakreno in bronasto dobo.

In the Parallel Lives, Aristides and Themistocles are two antithetical characters. This opposition, already present in Herodotus’work and common to the literary tradition of the Persian wars, is particularly emphasized by Plutarch who shapes two characters endowed with opposing character traits who adopt completely different behaviors towards friends or wealth. This profound contrast is intended to highlight the collaboration between the two Athenians, ready to put aside personal differences to devote themselves together to the war against the Persians. The episode of reconciliation is in fact located, unlike other sources (Aristotle, Diodorus), before the battle of Salamis. However, Aristides and Themistocles do not limit themselves to settling their differences : they also take on the role of mediators during the war in order to address the disagreements between Athens and the other Greek cities and avoid hindering the common struggle against the barbarians. To do this, Plutarch adapts some passages of Herodotus (directly or by choosing sources that made such changes) to insert the protagonists of the Lives and create a climate of tension that they can happily resolve. His authorial choices appear consistent with the criticisms against Herodotus in De Herodoti Malignitate. The reflection about the Persian wars in Plutarch’s corpus seems therefore to be animated by a coherent vision, born from the tradition elaborated by the Attic orators in the fourth century : the conflict is seen as a privileged moment of the union between the Greeks, capable of overcoming the almost endemic rivalries that oppose them in view of the common good.

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This bronze plaque, found in 1879, contains two monetary deposits made by an individual named Zeuxias at the sanctuary of Olympia in the second half of the fifth century BC. It constitutes one of the few preserved documents of this type, making it a valuable testimony of banking activities at Panhellenic sanctuaries. Due to the fragmentary status of the text, a comparison with other analogous inscriptions and literary testimonies is here offered, with the aim of casting some light on the reason behind the deposit, and the formulaic language used.

This study delves into the only three Hellenistic civic inscriptions of Kephaloidion (modern Cefalù), a secondary harbour in northern Sicily. The inscriptions, despite their fragmentary nature, reveal unique linguistic and historical features that align with regional trends, including the role of civic officials. Two of these inscriptions are rather early examples of civic epigraphy in Kephaloidion, and appear to be dedications of local officials with some unique features. The third one, a statue base honouring a Roman individual of the gens Domitia, may be one of the oldest examples of honorific epigraphy for a provincial governor in Sicily, if identified with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus (pr. 97 BC).

I.Milet VI, 3 nr. 1039 è un decreto onorario milesio per Eirenias figlio di Eirenias il Vecchio, un notabile della città di Mileto, attivo nella prima metà del II sec. a.C. Eirenias è noto per la sua attività diplomatica di raccordo tra Seleucidi e Attalidi. In particolare, il decreto in esame testimonia il suo ruolo di intermediario nel contesto delle donazioni di Eumene II a Mileto per la costruzione di un Ginnasio, e nella concessione di ateleia alla città da parte di Antioco IV e di sua moglie Laodice. Il contributo presenta anche un’analisi del ricco dossier di iscrizioni relative ad Eirenias, che illustra le principali tappe della sua carriera politica, dall’elezione a synedros nel trattato tra Mileto e Eraclea al Latmo, all’incarico di presbeutes nell’ambasceria a Eumene II, alla curatela degli onori per il medesimo sovrano.

Il testo, inciso su una stele rinvenuta nei pressi dell’altare dell’Amphiareion di Oropos, raccoglie una serie di norme che disciplinavano la vita del santuario occupandosi di regolamentare la presenza del sacerdote durante l’anno, di chiarirne l’autorità sul neokoros, di definirne le competenze giuridiche e sanzionatorie circa il comportamento improprio dei postulanti, oltre a fissare le modalità del versamento dell’eparche, imposta al fedele per accedere all’enkoimeterion.

L’epigramma funerario di Pollis è iscritto su una stele che, su basi epigrafiche, è riconducibile a Megara e databile alla prima metà del V secolo a.C. (480-470). Il soggetto dell’iscrizione è identificato con l’oplita in armi raffigurato sulla stele. Nei due esametri dell’epigramma è specificato che Pollis morì per mano di στίκται (tatuatori). Sulla base della cronologia e della probabile provenienza dell’iscrizione, è possibile postulare che il greco Pollis morì nel contesto della seconda guerra persiana. Se si presta fede alla nota testimonianza di Erodoto relativa agli στίγματα βασιλήια, gli στίκται dell’iscrizione possono essere identificati con i Persiani. Tuttavia, altre identificazioni sono plausibili.

Nella prima metà del IV secolo a.C. (369 o 363/362 a.C.), nel santuario panellenico di Delfi, i Tessali dedicano un’iscrizione e una statua bronzea in onore del comandante tebano Pelopida, probabilmente per celebrarne le gesta contro Sparta, in difesa della Tessaglia. L’offerta reca inoltre la firma dell’artista Lisippo.

L’iscrizione conserva un decreto demotico forse da attribuire al demo attico di Myrrhinous. I doveri e i compiti del demarco sembrano essere al centro della delibera, che tocca tre temi principali: l’euthyna del demarco uscente che aveva luogo a inizio anno, la procedura di prestito di denaro sacro e infine i sacrifici compiuti in occasione di alcune festività e dei quali il demarco era responsabile. L’epigrafe permette dunque di riflettere sul funzionamento interno dell'amministrazione demotica, mettendo al tempo stesso in evidenza i vari ambiti di competenza del demarco, che toccavano la sfera politica, amministrativa e religiosa.

(The ancient tradition concerning Pythagoras of Samos’ role as the founder of physiognomy): This paper collects and analyzes ancient sources that refer to Pythagoras of Samos as the founder of physiognomy. Interest in physiognomy, which deals with the relationship between the body and the spirit, has become more popular over the last few years; however, many aspects of research into the topic are still obscure and worthy of further study. Physiognomy was assumed by ancient authors to be the method by which candidates were selected to enter the Pythagorean community, used by the Greek philosopher and his followers. Information about Pythagoras, who – by simply looking at somebody – could recognize their character appears, in the works of Aulus Gellius, Hippolytus, Porphyry, Iamblichos, Proclos and Olympiodorus. Apart from discussing testimonia about Pythagoras and his physiognomic examinations, the text explores the role of physiognomy during the selection process for the Pythagorean community in order to provide a better understanding of elite traditions within society. The paper also supplies further insight with regards to the methodology behind physiognomical surveys, which were popular during antiquity.

(Tiberius’ Actions in Selected Regions as Instruments of Diplomatic Policy from 20 BCE to 37 CE): This article is devoted to the diplomatic activities of Tiberius which can be divided into two main phases. The first period concerns the time before Tiberius became emperor (20 BCE–14 CE), whilst the second relates to his time as ruler of the Empire (14–37). The composition of the work is geographical, because in some regions Tiberius acted as a diplomatic envoy of Augustus and later as the emperor. The paper discusses his role and how effective his actions were with regards to the following regions: (I) Armenia and Parthia; (II) Pannonia; (III) Germania; (IV) Thrace; (V) Cappadocia, Commagene, Amanus and Pontus; (VI) Greek cities; (VII) Palestine and Syria.

(The dynastic politics of Septimius Severus in the context of the Roman civil war of 193–197 AD – the testimony of coins): This text is devoted to the dynastic politics of Septimius Severus in the context of the Roman civil war of 193–197 AD. The coins minted on behalf of the emperor and his family during this conflict provide the source basis for the discussion. Their propagandistic significance enables the main changes that took place in the dynastic policy of this ruler to be reconstructed. They also provide an insight into the ideological basis of Septimius Severus' power in the first years of his reign.

(What does “superiores barbari” mean in Vita Marci Antonini [14.1])?: The phrase Profecti tamen sunt paludati ambo imperatores et Victualis et Marcomannis cuncta turbantibus, aliis etiam gentibus, quae pulsae a superioribus barbaris fugerant, nisi reciperentur, bellum inferentibus was translated by David Magie in the Loeb Classical Library series as “Clad in the military cloak the two emperors finally set forth, for now not only were the Victuali and Marcomanni throwing everything into confusion, but other tribes, who had been driven on by the more distant barbarians and had retreated before them, were ready to attack Italy if not peaceably received.” The term “by the more distant barbarians” follows the interpretation of the words pulsae a superioribus barbaris adopted by Guillaume de Moulines in his 1783 French translation. A similar line of interpretation with an additional indication of the distant north was also proposed by Karl Mannert in 1792. This unrest was supposed to have translated into the general agitation of the Germanic peoples of the Danube limes, contributing to the launching of attacks on the Roman side of the Danube River. A semantic analysis of the adjective superior, however, indicates that it does not mean further away, let alone from the distant north, but only: higher in position, upper, i.e. in the case of ethnic names it refers either to certain barbarians having the upper hand over others, or to the barbarians mentioned above in the source text. Consequently, the superiores barbari that appear in the sentence do not have much to do with the Polish lands, as it is probably precisely the Victuals of the Dacian section of the limes and the Marcomanni of the Pannonian section who took the upper hand over other barbarians in their regions close to the Danube.

The functioning of Silla in the Three Kingdoms Period. Selected issues inspired by the television series Hwarang [2016]): Worldwide interest in Korean popular culture, especially television series produced in Seoul, has continued to grow since it first came to the attention of international audiences during the 1990s. This is due, among other things, to the numerous costume productions that not only provide entertainment but also popularise the history of the Korean Peninsula, which affords local politicians a specific tool for conducting mod- ern historical policy. Meanwhile, despite the growing popularity of K-drama, Poland still lacks the scientific basis that would allow the ancient history of Korea to be studied. To fill this gap, the author of this article decided to present key issues related to the Three Kingdoms Period (313–668) and the political, social, economic and cultural functioning of the Korean state of Silla. Since the successes of this small country were determined by a combination of factors, including: the nongjajeongbon policy aimed at the welfare of the village and its inhabitants, the hwabaek council with its controlling and mediating function, the golpum bone-rank system that ensured social stability, as well as (shown by the producers of the television series Hwarang from 2016) the chivalrous ethos of members of the elite Hwarang Corps, which remains one of the most important national symbols of Korea to this day.

(Defensor civitatis. Legal protection authority in the later Roman Empire): In the 4th century, an official with the title defensor civitatis became widespread in the Roman Empire. His task was to protect the poor from administrative injustices. Noteworthy were his powers regarding taxation, which served the state’s fiscal goals by protecting sources of tax revenue. Initially, the defensor enjoyed a certain level of independence, but over time the position became subordinated to the local elites. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the original function of this official was distorted.

(The Bible as a research source on trade between the Graeco-Roman World and South and East Asia): The Bible mentions several luxury goods (sapphire, emerald, carnelian, topaz, silk, ivory, spikenard, cinnamon, amomum) that were imported by the Roman Empire from South and East Asia via various routes during the 1st-4th centuries CE. The list of goods that appear in the pages of the New Testament testifies to the sound understanding of economic realities that were displayed by the biblical authors and corresponds to the knowledge of Rome's trade contacts with Asian countries.