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(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2023 8(3), 1645-1661 | Article | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction. – II. Law-making capacity as an expression of sovereignty. – III. The participation of international organizations in the formation of customary international law. – III.1. Overview. – III.2. Whose practice? – III.3. Which norms? – III.4. Conclusion. – IV. The practice of the EU and its relevance in the creation of customary international law. – IV.1. Overview. – IV.2. Legislative practice of the Union. – IV.3. Judicial practice of the CJEU. – IV.4. Positions taken by the Commission in (quasi-)judicial proceedings. – V. Conclusions. | (Abstract) This Article argues that the ability of the European Union to participate in the creation of customary international law curtails the sovereignty of its Member States. First, it shows that authority to participate in norm-creation constitutes a core aspect of sovereignty under international law. Second, it argues that the conduct of the European Union (as an international organization) may be determinative in ascertaining the existence and content of customary norms. However, that authority lacks an explicit basis in the treaties. Third, it asserts that this encompasses norms that are directly relevant for the Member States, potentially in circumstances outside of the scope of EU law. The Article then specifically discusses three types of acts of the Union and their relevance for the creation of customary international law, while providing examples that touch upon traditional inter-states relations. In particular, this concerns the legislative practice of the Union, the judicial practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and public statements made by the Commission in (quasi-)judicial proceedings.

Der Einsatz von maschineller Gesichtserkennung im öffentlichen Raum birgt die Gefahr einer gesellschaftlichen Massenüberwachung. Werden dabei biometrische Daten, die ein Individuum eindeutig identifizieren, genutzt, handelt es sich nach dem neuen Datenschutzgesetz um eine Bearbeitung besonders schützenswerter Personendaten. Die maschinelle Gesichtserkennung ist in der Schweiz regulatorisch kaum umrissen. Dabei sind Überlegungen dazu dringend geboten. Dies ergibt sich einerseits aus der Grundrechtsrelevanz der Thematik, andererseits fordern zivil-gesellschaftliche Organisationen ein entsprechendes Verbot. Auch die geplante EU-Regelung zur künstlichen Intelligenz, in der die Gesichtserkennung enthalten ist, sollte in den Erwägungen berücksichtigt werden. Vor diesem Hintergrund gibt der vorliegende Aufsatz einen Überblick über die im Zusammenhang mit maschineller Gesichtserkennung im öffentlichen Raum auftretenden Rechtsfragen und befasst sich mit der Frage der Notwendigkeit eines Verbots oder Moratoriums. -- L’utilisation de la reconnaissance faciale automatique dans l’espace public comporte le risque d’une surveillance de masse de la société. Si des données biométriques identifiant clairement un individu sont utilisées, il s’agit, selon la nouvelle loi sur la protection des données, d’un traitement de données personnelles sensibles. En Suisse, la reconnaissance faciale automatique n’est guère encadrée par la réglementation. Il est pourtant urgent de réfléchir à cette question. Cela résulte, d’une part, de l’importance de cette question en termes de droits fondamentaux et, d’autre part, de la volonté de certaines organisations de la société civile d’interdire une telle utilisation de ces données. La réglementation européenne prévue en matière d’intelligence artificielle, qui inclut la reconnaissance faciale, devrait également être prise en compte dans les réflexions. Dans ce contexte, le présent article donne un aperçu des questions juridiques qui se posent s’agissant de la reconnaissance faciale automatique dans l’espace public et se penche sur la question de la nécessité d’une interdiction ou d’un moratoire.

Die rechtliche Befassung mit Smart Mobility steht — zumindest aus dem Blickwinkel der Data Governance — noch ganz am Anfang. Der vorliegende Artikel versteht sich als Auslegeordnung, auf deren Basis weitere rechtliche Erwägungen angestell werden können. Erstens gibt der Beitrag einen Überblick über die wesentlichen Aspekte von Smart Mobility, zweitens zeigt er auf, welche rechtlichen Herausforderungen sich mit Blick auf die für Smart Mobility unabdingbare Datennutzung stellen und drittens skizziert er mögliche rechtliche Handlungsoptionen. -- La recherche juridique menée sur la smart mobility n'en est qu'à ses débuts, du moins du point de vue de la gouvernance des données (data governance). La présente publication est un état des lieux sur la base de laquelle de nouvelles réflexions juridiques peuvent être menées. Premièrement, l'article donne un aperçu des aspects essentiels de la smart mobility, deuxièmement, il met en évidence les défis juridiques qui se posent en ce qui concerne l'utilisation des données, indispensable à la smart mobility, et troisièmement, il esquisse les options juridiques possibles.

Las estrategias autorreflexivas son muy ocurrentes en la poesía contemporánea: en el último poemario de Pablo García Casado (García Casado 2015) conducen al yo poético al conocimiento de sí mismo y de la realidad presente mediante un viaje introspectivo que, al mismo tiempo, evoca en el nivel enunciativo tres características eminentes de la poesía: ciclicidad, tradición e innovación. Keywords: Autorreflexión, Pablo García Casado, Poesía española del siglo XXI, García

Objective: Anti-b2 GPI are a formal laboratory criterion for the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). They were demonstrated to be a risk factor for thrombosis and fetal losses but can also be detected in patients with systemic autoimmune disease (SAD), in healthy adults individuals and pre-school children. It has been suggested that different subpopulations of anti-b2GPI may carry different pathogenetic potential: autoantibodies against Domain1 seem to be associated with thrombosis; autoantibodies against Domain4/5 have been identifi ed in patients with non-thrombotic conditions. Methods: We studied 48 patients with SAD (32 systemic lupus erythematosus, 16 undifferentiated connettive tissue disease), 64 patients with APS, 57 one-year-old healthy children born to mother with SAD, 33 children with atopic dermatitis. All subjects were IgG anti-b2 GPI positive. The specifi city of anti-b2 GPI was investigated using ELISA research products containing recombinant b2 GPI D1 and D4/5 antigens. Cut-off values are calculated as 95th percentile on 100 NHD. IgG anti-b2 GPI were tested at a validated home-made ELISA routinely performed in our laboratory. No thrombotic events were recordered in patients with SAD and in both groups of children. Results: Patients with SAD and APS showed prevalent reactivity for D1 while children in both groups preferentially recognize D4/5. Conclusions: IgG anti-b2 GPI against D1 seem to cluster in patients with systemic autoimmune conditions. Their pathogenic potential in determine APS manifestations may be mitigated by adequate prophylaxis.

Objective: Anti-β2glycoprotein I antibodies (a-β2GPI) are a laboratory criterion for the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) and were demonstrated to be involved in the pathogenesis of APS. However, they can also be detected in asymptomatic subjects. It has been suggested that a-β2GPI against Domain1 (D1) associate with thrombosis, while those recognizing Domain4/5 (D4/5) have been identified in non-thrombotic conditions. We evaluate the specificity of a- β2GPI in different clinical situations. Methods: We studied 39 one-year-old healthy children born to mothers with systemic autoimmune diseases (SAD) (15 (38.4%) were born to mothers who were a-β2GPI positive), 33 children with atopic dermatitis (AD) and 55 patients with APS (50 adults and 5 paediatrics). All subjects were IgG a-β2GPI positive. IgG a-β2GPI were performed by homemade ELISA, while IgG a-β2GPI D1 and D4/5 were tested on research ELISAs containing recombinant β2GPI domains antigens. Results: One-year-old children and AD children displayed preferential reactivity for D4/5; patients with APS recognized preferentially D1. We also found a good correlation between a-β2GPI and D4/5 in one-year-old (r=0.853) and AD children (r=0.879) and between a-β2GPI and D1 in the APS group (r=0.575). No thrombotic events were recorded in both groups of children. Conclusions: A-β2GPI found in non-thrombotic conditions (healthy children born to mothers with SAD and AD children) mostly recognize D4/5, in contrast to the prevalent specificity for D1 in the APS group. The different specificity could at least partially explain the “innocent” profile of a-β2GPI in children.