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Changes, that have occurred in the area of distribution of the cultural complex Cucuteni-Trypillia can be considered using traditional methods for studying of pottery assemblages, of course, taking into account data from the natural sciences, including paleogenetics. For the period of the spreading of the painted pottery and formation of Cucuteni-Trypillia, reconstructions were carried out before only taking into account the interpretation of the results of ceramic studies, which showed both the progress and the formation of some new cultural groups of various levels. In the second case, the events of the last quarter of 5th mil. BC were examined and then verified using both the study of pottery assemblages, including pottery of the «Cucuteni C» type, paleogenetics and anthropology. A comparison of the results showed the possibilities of mutual verification, as well as the unique source-study capabilities of various methods that give the greatest effect with an interdisciplinary approach. As a result, it was possible to successfully compare the results of genetic studies that showed the penetration into the communities of Trypillia farmers some amount of representatives of populations related to western and eastern hunter-gatherers, partially connected with other groups of the farming population, indicated in some cases by archaeological materials.

The author of the article has two aims. At first, he wants to inform theologians about the newest findings of paleogenetics, paleoanthropology and bioculturology relevant for the theology of creation, theological anthropology, moral theology and fundamental theology. In theology, it is necessary to find a clear borderline between not yet being human and being already human. Searching for this borderline is the second aim of the study. On the level of technology and communication, we can observe a continual development. Although there can be found some leaps, theologians are not able to find a clear borderline. According to the author, this line is marked by moral consciousness, which either exists or not. Human being is a creature able to sin. The time of crossing this Rubicon cannot be determined according to archaeological discoveries. It could be in the time of Homo heidelbergensis, but certainly in the time of classical Neanderthals and anatomically modern people.

In the early days of mankind, at a time when various other human species populated the earth coexisting with Homo sapiens, the genetic mixing of mankind had already begun. Today, paleogenetics-as a branch of human genetic research-can prove that individuals from the most diverse human species already produced offspring together long before our era. This intermixing was supported from the beginning by massive migratory movements that started in East Africa and led first Homo neanderthalensis and much later also Homo sapiens to as far as Europe-two human species of which we know today that they were lighter-skinned than their ancestors. The adaptation to life in different climatic zones led to development of specific characteristics, which, in addition to physique and physiognomy, also affect specific features of the skin and the integumentary system. The most striking feature among these is the skin color and all associated skin-specific characteristics. These characteristics ensure special protection, but can also be the origin for specific diseases. Any division of Homo sapiens into races has been scientifically refuted. Due to ongoing genetic mixing of mankind, skin color, hair color and all associated characteristics should always be considered individually., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Medizin Verlag GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature.)