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The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of the literature relevant to the peripartal period in swine. As in all other mammals, the farrowing process in pigs is divided into 3 phases (I-III; opening, expulsion, and postnatal stage), during which various essential endocrine and metabolic mechanisms initiate or maintain parturition. These include the hormones progesterone, cortisol, prostaglandin F 2α , oxytocin, estradiol, relaxin as well as electrolytes, enzymes, and metabolites such as calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphate, glucose, creatine kinase, lactate, non-esterified free fatty acids, and β-hydroxybutyrate. Exogenous or endogenous disruptive factors may result in a delay or even stagnation of labor. For example, the form of husbandry may represent a possible exogenous disruptive factor. Endogenous disruptive factors may arise from insufficient storage and/or distribution of the above-mentioned labor-associated parameters. Subsequent dystocia leads to temporary or permanent consequences for maternal reproductive fitness and impairs piglet vitality at the time of birth, possibly resulting in lower survival rates., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of Probiotics in Progress (PIP) on the establishment of a competitive flora as well as on antibiotic use and losses of suckling piglets in pig breeding farms. The tested products were PIP AHC® and PIP AHS® produced by "Chrisal AG" in Lommel, Belgium. PIP`s are cleaning products containing Bacillus spores. According to the manufacturer's specifications, they are able to establish a steady non-pathogenic stable flora. In a field trial in 19 pig breeding farms, the use of PIP-products did not lead to any reduction of antibiotic use or improvement of fertility parameters, especially in relation to losses of suckling piglets. In addition, we compared the bacterial flora using PIP products with the flora under conventional management conditions in a farrowing pen by means of swab samples. The use of PIP-products did not lead to any significant effect on the pen flora. Only very few swab samples contained a majority of probiotic Bacillus spp.

Objective: In addition to castration, further husbandry procedures are performed in piglets during the first week of life without anaesthesia. The aim of the present study was to investigate the pain-induced stress of the husbandry procedures castration, tail docking and ear tagging performed in piglets in combination in comparison with castration or handling alone. Furthermore, the effect of the presurgical administration of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam alone or in combination with iron was investigated., Material and Methods: The levels of pain and stress were evaluated based on cortisol and catecholamine concentrations, as well as from behavioural observations. The compatibility and the effect of combined drug administration were assessed, and the daily weight gain and blood iron level were determined., Results: When comparing the application procedures, the slight changes observed at the iron injection site were reduced by 40% when using the mixture. After performing all three husbandry procedures without administration of meloxicam (KSO group), higher cortisol concentrations were induced for up to 4 hours compared to the handling (H) and castration (K) groups. In piglets receiving meloxicam or the mixture of iron and meloxicam presurgically, the cortisol concentration was significantly reduced for 0.5 hours after castration and up to 4 hours following all three husbandry procedures when compared to piglets without medication (groups K and KSO, respectively)., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: The results indicate that the blood cortisol concentration significantly rose due to multiple pain and distress when combining castration, ear tagging and tail docking. Application of meloxicam before performing these husbandry procedures reduced pain equally to its application before castration alone. The application of a mixed preparation of iron and meloxicam did not affect the efficacy of either drug and improved the local tolerance of the iron injection.

Considering continuously increasing forage costs, the feed conversion rate has a major impact on the economic efficiency in hog fattening. The influence of hygienic management strategies on animal health and feed efficiency was evaluated by an online-study comprising animal health management data of 202 German pig fatteners. Data analysis included a simple comparison of averages, a linear regression analysis, and a cluster analysis. Due to geographical distribution and size of premises, the random sample was not representative but yielded in significant results. The total impact of hygienic management on feed conversion was calculated to be 23.9 %. Professional performance of rodent control (beta = 0.357; p < or = 0.001), efficient insect larvae control (beta = 0.276; p = 0.008), requiring visitors to wear protective gear (beta = 0.261; p = 0.009), and immediately performed cleaning and disinfection of emptied pens (beta = 0.247; p = 0.017) were top-ranking variables. Furthermore, a significantly better fed efficiency was observed in companies reporting stables in a good state of repair or performing further preventive strategies to control animal health on herd-level (storage of fodder retain samples, health screening based on blood and faecal samples, cross-section to verify unclear death cases). For pig fatteners the benefit resulting from improved feed conversion ranged from Euro 1.15 to and Euro 2.53 per pig. Likewise optimized growth performance as a result of improved hygienic management could partly compensate increasing feed costs. The results of this online-study reveal the need to establish reliable HACCP systems on farm level.

The objective of the investigation was to evaluate quantitatively the analgesic efficacy of the Ketamine-Azaperone-general anesthesia during surgical procedures on pigs by nociceptive flexor reflexes (NFR). The study was performed in 30 four to five month old male pigs which were castrated. The NFR was evoked every minute over the N. ulnaris by multiple electrical stimulation consisting of five single stimuli (2 Hz). The reflex response was derived electromyographically (EMG) by surface electrodes placed over the M. deltoideus. The root-mean-square amplitude within the time interval of 80-240 ms after the last stimulus was calculated as measure for the reflex size. The threshold was fixed at 40 microV. Beside electrical NFR recording the surgical tolerance was determined by the traditional interdigital reflex and the defense reaction to defined surgical test stimuli which were incisisions in the scrotal skin, in the tunica vaginalis and in the testis, pulling off the spermatic cord, clamping and cutting off the spermatic cord and final wound disinfection. All surgical pain stimuli were performed simultaneously with the electrical stimuli. After induction of anesthesia the NFR amplitude declined from 3500 microV below the threshold of 40 microV. At 98% of the surgical stimuli without defense reaction were below the reflex threshold. At 93% with defense reactions demonstrated reflex amplitudes above the threshold. When the interdigital reflex was suppressed, 89% of the NFR values fell below the threshold of 40 microV. These findings demonstrate a good correlation of NFR-amplitudes with reactions to traditional controls of analgesia.

Weaning of farm animals is of biological and economical relevance. Due to economical considerations, the weaning age of piglets (Sus scrofa) has drastically been reduced during the last few years, whereas biological consequences remain ambiguous. This review gives a survey of current international research on weaning and its psychobiological consequences in conventional pig farming. The influence of weaning age on behaviour, neuroendocrine and immune systems of piglets is the main focus of this paper. The abrupt weaning in pig farming comprises multiple stressful events such as change in diet, new physical environment, as well as the often underestimated psychosocial consequences of maternal deprivation and regrouping with unfamiliar conspecifics. Results presented in this review suggest that early weaned piglets (< or = 21 days of age) show enhanced behavioural problems and neuroendocrine stress reactions as well as reduced immune responses. These adaptation problems may have short- and long-term effects on animals' welfare and health, consequently resulting in increased financial requirements and higher management demands. Weaning before the third week of age is not recommended. Additionally, alternative housing systems (e.g. group housing) with adequate weaning methods (e.g. weaning without regrouping, social contacts prior to weaning) to diminish psychosocial stress are discussed.

Some housing conditions and practices in livestock husbandry may be stressful for the animals and may impair their welfare.This is of particular relevance for pregnant dams, because it is known from rodents and primates that prenatal stress (i. e. stress experienced by the mother with impact on the fetal ontogeny) may have long-lasting effects on growth, health and behaviour of the offspring. This review gives a survey of current research on prenatal stress and its consequences in farm animals. In comparison to the well-studied rodent model there are differences in placental structure and prenatal ontogeny. However, the research reveals that also in farm animals prenatal stress can lead to an impairment of growth, immune function, behaviour and stress reactivity in the offspring. Maternal glucocorticoids are discussed as potential mediators and it has been demonstrated that the effects on the offspring depend on the nature of the stressor as well as on its time and duration during gestation. Because prenatal stress in farm animals may be a source of economic and welfare problems by reason of reduced vitality and well-being of the offspring, suggestions for future work in this field of research are made.

The fetal stress responses in sows euthanized by electrical current during their second and last trimester of pregnancy (G1 and G2) were evaluated. Three methods of euthanasia of pregnant sows generally applicable to cases of epizootic or emergency slaughter were investigated: 1. conventional application of electrical current to the head and heart (HH); 2. application of electrical current to the head, heart and the uterus (HHU); 3. application of electrical current to the head, heart and from the upper body to the vagina (HHV). Fetuses were delivered by cesarean section at intervals of 3 to 4 minutes and remained attached to the sow by the umbilical cord. Fetal vitality, reflexes, heart rate, blood pressure, rectal body temperature, intracardial arteriovenous pCO2, pH and lactic acid were monitored for a period of 30 minutes. No method was found to kill the fetal pigs immediately. In fetuses at G1 there were no significant differences between the HH and HHU and HHV methods. Fetuses at G2 showed a significantly faster decrease in heart rate and blood pressure as well as a shorter period of time for the absence of fetal body movements and reflexes for the HHT method, compared to the other methods. Since it is not yet known to what extent the fetal pig experiences pain and suffering, the prolonged process of dying for the in utero fetus due to hypoxia which includes struggling and gasps is inconsistent with criteria for humane euthanasia and animal welfare.

Objective of this study was to examine the efficacy of various local anaesthetics (Procaine Hydrochloride, Procaine Hydrochloride + Epinephrin, Lidocaine Hydrochloride) used in castration of four to six day old male piglets. Animals of the control groups (I-IV) were treated analogous to the castration groups (V-IX) but not castrated. In groups I and V 15 minutes prior to castration/fixation the piglets were fixed as for injection but not medicated. The injection volume was standardised to 0.5 ml per testes. Local anaesthetics were applicated intratesticularly in five groups and intrascrotarly in two groups. Blood samples were taken shortly before and one, four and 24 hours after castration/fixation. The serum cortisol level was analysed to determine pain induced neuroendocrine stress reaction. To proof the tissue tolerance creatinkinase-(CK) and aspartataminotransferase-(AST) concentration were analysed. One, seven and 14 days after castration the healing process were evaluated by a wound score. Groups I to IV did not show any increase of the serum cortisol level. Contrary one hour after castration the average cortisol concentration of castration groups (V-IX) rose significantly. Cortisol concentration of the medicated castration groups (VI-IX) showed a comparable or even higher cortisol level as the not medicated control group (V). Determination of CK and AST indicated no tissue damage of the application of the local anaesthetics. The administration of local anaesthetics prior to the castration did not have any effect on the wound healing process. The results of this study lead to the conclusion that injection of local anaesthetics show a good tissue tolerance but the call for reduction of the castration pain by presurgical injection of Procaine Hydrochloride or Lidocaine Hydrochloride is not justified.

According to the applicable animal welfare legislation, the surgical castration of pigs is allowed up until the age of 4 weeks, without anaesthesia. According to the european guideline (2001/93/EG) it is only permitted in the first week after birth. The investigation should show, whether the castration of young piglets takes a milder course and to what extent stress reactions occur in different age groups. The healing process of castration wounds in piglets that were castrated at the age of four days progressed more rapidly and with less complications than those piglets that were castrated at 28 days of age. The catecholamine levels in younger piglets rose significantly after the operation, while these levels virtually stayed the same in piglets castrated at 28 days. As alternatives to castration without anaesthesia, several methods are in discussion: (1) Castration under general anaesthesia can only be practiced by a veterinary surgeon. The sole use of Azaperon and Ketamine has insufficient pain sedating effect. Isofluran anaesthesia is apparatively extravagant. (2) CO2-Anaesthesia in piglets leads to high strain. (3) Castration under local anaesthesia must be practiced by a veterinary surgeon. The application and the pain after the castration are not taken into consideration. (4) Jung boar fattening up until the slaughtering weight of 80 kg is not transformable, because of boar taste. (5) The breeding of slaughter pigs with little boar taint is not yet transformable. (6) Sperm sexing is not and will not, in the near future, be mature for practice. (7) Immunocastration is an active immunisation against GnRH. The immunological elimination of GnRH suppresses the development of sex hormones, such as testosterone, as well as the substance responsible for boar taint, Androstenone. To consider is the acceptance of the consumer. The preparation has the same effect in humans as it has in swine. "Self injections" have the same effect in humans as it has in swine. "Self injections" are therefore risky.

The composition of sow colostrum and milk from single teats were characterized in 20 primiparous German Landrace sows at ten points throughout lactation time (after birth of the first piglet, and subsequently at 12 and 24 h, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 d postpartum). In these samples contents of protein, IgG, lactose and fat were analyzed. In the first 3 days of lactation protein- and IgG-contents drastically decreased, on the other hand the levels of energy resources lactose and fat increased. Significant effects of the single teat and the teat pair on the content of protein at farrowing and 12 h later as well as on the contents of IgG and lactose 12 h postpartum were found. The highest contents of protein and IgG were analyzed in colostrum of teats in the median udder section, the colostrum of cranial teats had the highest content of lactose. At days 3 and 5 of lactation milk showed large coefficients of variation (cv) in milk composition from teat to teat as well as from sow to sow (intraindividual cv: protein: 22%, IgG: 45%, lactose: 20%, fat: 34%; interindividual cv: protein: 36%, IgG: 85%, lactose: 27%, fat: 47%). During lactation period the intraindividual variation of milk parameters was lower than the interindividual variation. Possible reasons for these results are discussed.

The effects of an enriched environment on growth, meat quality, and muscle biological traits were investigated using 64 castrated pigs (age range 7 to 20 weeks). Positive emotional appraisal was induced by a system that acoustically frequently called individuals out of a group (n=32) to a feeding station, where they were rewarded with small portions of feed. The results were compared with traditional fed pigs (Control; n = 32). There was no environmental effect on live weight and lean muscle percentage. However, the stimulating keeping regime reduced the intramuscular fat content of the M. longissimus by 0.2 % and increased the protein content by 0.5 %. Moreover, the drip loss of M. longissimus was 1.1 % lower in the treatment group. The analysis of muscle fibre traits (biopsy samples of M. longissimus) showed a 7 % higher proportion of oxidative muscle fibres in the pigs reared in the enriched environment. This fibre type showed a tendency to increased fibre areas. These findings indicate a higher oxidative capacity of the muscle. However, the activity of the inarker enzyme citrate synthase (CS) was not influenced and the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was even increased compared to the control animals.

Essential oils are very complex mixtures of volatile, lipophilic compounds originating from plants. Due to their lipophility they posses a good intestinale and percutane absorption. Under external application essential oils demonstrate antiphlogistic or rubefacient to pro-inflammatority activities. Orally intake they stimulate the secretion of digestive enzymes and increase gastric and intestinal motility. Moreover they show spasmolytic, expectorative and diuretic activities. Besides antimicrobial properties on bacteria and fungi have been observed in vitro and in vivo. Due to their various effects essential oils increasingly gain attention in animal nutrition and are discussed to be alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters. In some studies essential oils have been reported to reduce intestinal pathogens in broilers and piglets. When administered to ruminants essential oils decrease ruminal ammonia production by suppression the growth of deaminative microorganisms. However, the observed effects on growth performance are inconsistent among studies. In conclusion, there are still some unanswered questions concerning the mode of action, metabolic pathway and optimal dosage of essential oils in different animal species. Further scientific research is therefore needed to use essential oils effectivly in livestock feeding.

Saponins are glycosides found in many plants, which have soap character due to their surfactant properties. They work haemolytic and may cause symptoms of intoxication in high concentration. Among therapeutically relevant effects expectorative, anti-inflammatory and immune-stimulating effects have the highest ranking. Beyond that, saponins demonstrate antimicrobial properties particularly against fungi and additionally against bacteria and protozoa. In animal nutrition additions of saponins can suppress intestinal and ruminal ammonia production. The ammonia-reducing effect is primarily attributed to an inhibition of proteolytic microorganisms. Due to reduced NH3-concentrations metabolism is relieved, which offers benefits to animal welfare and animal performance. Accordingly improved feed convertion ratio can be registered in weanling and growing-finishing pigs with the employment of saponin-containing feed additives. With regard to ruminal fermentation in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that beside proteolytic protozoa also cellolytic and amylolytic bacterial species are restrained. To what extent antimicrobial activity supress digestion or whether the selective effects on microorganisms can be used purposefully to manipulate ruminal fermentation, must be clarified in further investigations.

The aim of this study was to examine the incidence of sperm agglutinations and their relationships with sperm quality and fertility. Semen samples of 40 boars of an AI-station were investigated. Nineteen of the 40 investigated boars showed a constantly low (< 10% agglutinated sperm), 3 an intermediate (10-20%) and 6 boars a high level (> 20%) of agglutination in raw semen. The degree of agglutination in sperm samples of 12 boars varied distinctly during the investigation period. During summer more (P < 0.05) agglutinated sperm were observed (11.0 +/- 11.6%) than during winter (6.2 +/- 7.3%). There was no association between bacterial contamination and incidence of agglutinations (P > 0.05). After dilution in extender the percentage of agglutinated sperm decreased from 6.2 +/- 7.3% to 1.1 +/- 1.4% (P < 0.0001). Twenty-four hours after dilution the percentage of progressively motile sperm was 7.4% lower (P < 0.05) in ejaculates with an initially high degree of agglutination (> 20% agglutinated sperm) compared to samples with an initially low degree of agglutinated sperm (< 10%). Plasma membrane integrity, mitochondrial membrane potential, acrosome reaction and chromatin structure were independent (P > 0.05) from the level of agglutination. Fertility data did not differ (P > 0.05) between boars with low and high numbers of agglutinated sperm in raw semen. The results show that there are individual, ejaculatory and seasonal variations in the incidence and degree of agglutination. Agglutinations have a negative effect on motility of sperm and disappear to a large extent after dilution in sperm extender. They have no negative consequences on fertility.

The purpose of the study was to compare indoor and outdoor housing of pigs and their influence on animal health, growing performance and meat quality in a controlled field trial: 29 litters (252 piglets) from indoor and 22 litters (221 piglets) from outdoor were separated at weaning. One half of each litter changed to the opposite housing resulting finally in 4 types of housing: Continuous outdoor or indoor raising and combined outdoor-indoor or indoor-outdoor raising. Pigs in continuous resp. predominant outdoor housing showed lower morbidity and mortality during all raising periods, more active behaviour, higher daily weight gain in weaned pigs and in fattening pigs, but higher feed consumption as compared to indoor housed pigs. However, feed conversion did not differ significantly. Due to climatic influences differences in morbidity were partly more significant in summer litters (intestinal infections) or in winter litters (lung infections). Outdoor pigs raised in summer resulted less often in meat classification E (lean meat percentage > 55%), however, meat quality, estimated by pH-measures did not differ significantly. We conclude from our findings that outdoor housing of pigs from birth to slaughtering may be a serious alternative to predominant indoor keeping with regard to general welfare and growing performance.

This paper is concerned with the question in which ways study results can depend on the choice of the statistical model and factors included in this model. This is shown using example data of a study dealing with the effects of an Enterococcus faecium as probiotic in the diet of pigs. We focused on the effects on transport properties of pig jejunum. The experimental design was the following: the sows and piglets were randomly assigned to two different feeding groups. The control group was fed a conventional diet and the experimental group was additionally supplemented with a probiotic preparation of Enterococcus faecium NCIMB 10415. The animals were divided into four age groups. Two samples of five animals of each feeding and age group were taken and mounted into conventional Ussing chambers. Glucose transport rates were measured by changes in short-circuit current (Isc) of the pig jejunum epithelium. The appropriate reference base for evaluation of effects of feeding or age on Isc is the variation between animals which are submitted to identical conditions relating to these factors. To refer explicitly to this variation a random animal effect has to be included in the statistical model of variance analysis. Otherwise the variation between animals could be underestimated. With the example data set conclusions for the factor "feeding" would be different depending on whether a random animal effect is included in the model or not.

603 neonatal piglets (German Landrace) were investigated for passive immunization affected by birth order, birth weight, litter size and parity. Concentrations of immunoglobulins in the blood serum of piglets on the first day of life served as measure for passive immunization. Blood samples were drawn at 12, 18 and 24 hours post partum. Quantitative measurements of immunoglobulin classes were carried out by radial immunodiffusion. There was a significant effect of birth order, because of the rapid changes in colostrum composition between onset of birth and the last piglet of each litter. The effect of birth weight was only partly significant and different for the immunoglobulin classes. There was no significant effect of litter size on passive immunization. Parity had a significant positive effect on IgG- and IgA-concentrations in sow's colostrum with litter two to six, parity 1 and 2 lead to highest IgM concentrations in the blood serum of piglets.

Selection with regard to breeding aims can take into consideration the genotype with its effects besides the phenotype--meaning the externally visible or measurable traits. The phenotype expression of a trait depends on the underlying genotype that is modulated by environmental influences. Selection using phenotypic traits leads inevitable to inaccuracies as the genotypic effects can only be distinguished from the environmental deviations by the means of simplified statistical models. The marker-assisted selection is a method that combines the genotypic information of single genes with breeding values predicted from phenotypic information. By including the genotypic information the accuracy and intensity of selection can be improved. The selection decision can take place early in life of an animal because the time to phenotypic expression of the traits of the breeding goals has not to be bided for. The possibility of realizing selection criteria on a molecular genetic level shortens the generation interval. Particularly for fertility and health traits, this is of greatest interest. Genotyping can be performed by using blood or tissue samples of new-born piglets; it is not necessary to wait for the first parities of a sow or the results obtained by the offspring of a boar. Thus, damages and suffering from diseases can be reduced in animals, because susceptible animals can be diagnosed prior to occurrence of a disease and appropriate actions for prophylaxis can be undertaken. In the following the possibilities for pig breeding connected with marker-assisted selection are pointed out. Besides, it is shown by some examples how genes become so called candidate genes because of the physiological importance of their transcription products within the scope of metabolism. Besides the representation of the physiology of a few transcription products involved in reproductive processes results of studies analysing the association of alleles of these candidate genes with fertility traits are given.

During the last decade the number of outdoor breeding pig units increased in Northern Europe. With comparable results in reproduction and up to 70 per cent lower capital outlays in relation to the conventional indoor systems the interest of farmers in outdoor breeding grew also in Germany. There are a number of issues that are specific to outdoor systems that need to be considered during winter season.

The nursing and suckling behaviour of the domestic pig is a complex social behavioural interaction aimed to ensure the milk flow from the sow to the piglets. Ultimately caused theoretical frameworks from basic ethology and/or sociobiology are increasingly used to explain such social behavioural patterns. The present paper gives a short survey of ethophysiological aspects of the nursing and suckling behaviour in domestic pigs and, thereafter, discusses the development and consequences of some parts of the suckling behaviour and the maternal lactation performance in terms of a possible parent-offspring and weaning conflict. It is concluded that--additional to proximately caused mechanisms--the ontogeny of domestic pigs can be interpreted with such principles. In housing systems allowing the animals more control over their behaviour (e.g. their investment) ultimate causes should be more considered. Especially the pathways on which the ultimate strategies become effective via proximate mechanisms do not seem to be understood in total and require specific research. However, it is suggested that effective improvements of welfare, health and productivity can only be reached with the knowledge and integration of both ultimate and proximate causes of behaviour.

Investigations were carried out on the response of slaughter pigs to CO2 stunning with two different gas concentrations (80 vol%, 90 vol%, 73 s) under practical conditions in a one gondola-dip-lift system. EEG measurements were performed and blood constituents such as catecholamines (adrenaline, nor-adrenaline) and lactate as well as clinical reactions (nasal septum and corneal reflex, heart beats) investigated. Special EEG-electrodes were adapted for the measurement on pigs and a mobile data logger was prepared for the use in the lairage of the slaughter house and in the stunning unit. The CO2 concentrations were measured continuously close to the head of the pigs when transported up and down in the stunning gondola. The results show that the technique is suited to monitor the effects of different CO2 gas concentrations on the EEG of the pigs under practical conditions. There is strong evidence that CO2 concentrations of 80 vol% applied over 70 s as required by law are not sufficient to stun pigs properly. A large part of the animals still showed typical reflexes when leaving the stunning pit. When an atmosphere of 90 vol% CO2 is applied, most animals are already dead before bleeding commences. This may create problems in respect to meat hygiene. The blood analysis revealed very high concentrations of catecholamines after stunning. The values for adrenaline and nor-adrenaline in the sticking blood rose by a factor of about 1000 as compared to the concentrations in blood samples taken in the lairage before stunning. It seems necessary to revise the current legislation on gas stunning and to look in greater detail in the effects of CO2 stunning on the welfare of slaughter pigs.

The interpretation of research on noise assessment in animal housing is difficult as goals and methodology of assessment differ substantially between studies. Besides the differences in housing conditions and technology used for measuring noise, a lack of knowledge exists for intra- and interspecies communication, hearing ability and assessment of detrimental consequences following noise exposure. Due to the development of intensive production systems, pigs in all stages of housing are exposed to monotonous chronic noise as well as to a variety of intense noise events. The intention of this review is to document and compare the results of previous studies on noise assessment, in particular housing situations and to demonstrate the impact and significance of the noise problem for farm animal welfare, housing, design and management.

The origin and attachments of the muscles of the external nose were examined in 17 pigs comprising both sexes and different age groups. The modification of the porcine nasal apex to the snout-disc leads to different functional aspects of the muscles of the external nose. Accordingly, all these muscles are attached to the snout-disc. Only the nasolabial levator and caninus muscles are also attached to the upper lip. In addition, the snout-disc includes an intrinsic muscle, the nasal muscle. With regard to morphological and functional aspects, the nostrils can be divided into two parts. The superficial part consists of muscle and connective tissue and is dilated by the cooperative contraction of all muscles of the external nose. In contrast, the second and cartilaginous part of the nostrils dilates less readily, through contraction of the rostrally located deep fibres of the levator nasolabial muscle. As an adaptation for rooting, a special supportive system for muscles of the external nose has developed in pigs, including osseous (eminentia canina) and muscular (muscular slip of the m. levator labii superioris attached to the nasal bone, species-specific development of the m. levator nasolabialis) structures. The observed cartilaginous connection between the ventral lateral nasal and the vomeronasal cartilages suggests another transport mechanism for odours into the vomeronasal organ. Due to this connection, movement of the snout-disc and the cartilages of the external nose could imply passive movement of the vomeronasal cartilage and therefore of the vomeronasal organ.

The structure and occurrence of nerve fibres and nerve terminals in the lingual marginal papillae of newborn piglets are investigated by means of the osmium-zinc-iodate method and by transmission-electron microscopy. Subepithelial nerve fibres primarily accompany the blood vessels. They cross the epithelium with an almost vertical course to terminate in the stratum superficiale or the stratum corneum. Due to rows of varicosities, the axons look like a 'string of pearls'. As a result of the superficial localization and the typical ultrastructure, they seem to have a sensory function. Therefore, the papillae marginales are considered to function as mechanoreceptors.

The aim of the experiments was to evaluate the effect of an acute stressor (snare restraint for 5 min) on hormonal and metabolic parameters in pigs and to look for parameters which reflect best the stress intensity. The snare restraint resulted in an increase in plasma level of epinephrine from 88 +/- 12 to 2264 +/- 470 pg/ml and in plasma level of norepinephrine from 206 +/- 14 to 7727 +/- 1969 pg/ml within a minute. In contrast, the cortisol level showed a delayed increase from 30.8 +/- 4.9 to 101.8 +/- 12.0 nmol/l. The inhibitory effect of catecholamines on insulin secretion resulted in a delayed increase of plasma level of insulin from 0.14 +/- 0.01 to 0.29 +/- 0.04 nmol/l. Moreover, there was a significant increase in haematocrit and in plasma concentrations of glucose, lactate, free glycerol and ascorbic acid. A biphasic pattern in plasma level of potassium was observed. The present results suggest that besides the level of lactate the plasma concentration of catecholamines reflects best the individual degree of excitement and the time of physical strain.

In this study consequences of vitamin A-supplementation to the vitamin E-status was investigated in the boar. Three groups of boars, each with 9 animals were fed over a period of seven month with 30000 I.E. Vit. A/kg concentrate (group A), 90 mg b-carotene + 1000 I.E. Vit. A/kg (group B) and 1000 I.E. Vit. A/kg (group C). Every boar was given 100 mg Vit. E/kg plus 50 ml soybean oil/kg to induce oxidative stress. After four month group C showed a higher amount of tocopherol in serum (p < 0.05). The amount of tocopherol in serum of the group B were exactly between group A and C. The amount of retinol in serum of the group C began to decrease after three month due to the high reserve capacity of the liver (p < 0.01). The retinyl ester in serum reflected the state of supply. 90 mg b-carotene led to an efficiency of 15000 I.E. Vit. A. The vitamin antagonism between Vit. A and Vit. E is not based on an antagonism of the intestinal resorption. There was no influence on the daily sperm production caused by different supplementations. The sperm quality was lowered in group C; the number of defective sperm increased (p < 0.001). The supplementation of soybean oil lead to an increase of the saturated fatty acids in the fatty acid pattern of the sperm cells. The increase of saturated fatty acids was the lowest in group C that showed the highest amount of tocopherol in serum.

The production of monozygotic twins/multiplets in livestock animal can be achieved either by microsurgical bisection of embryos at the morular- or blastocyst stage, isolation and proliferation of blastomeres from early cleavage stages or nuclear transfer. While the success rates of micro-surgical bisection are high in ruminants (pregnancy rates approximately 50%, twinning rates 20-40%) in polyovulatory species such as swine, the efficiency is low with an average of 20% embryonic survival and 2% monozygotic twins that can positively identified via DNA-fingerprinting. Isolated blastomeres from multicellular embryos still possess great developmental capacity in vitro to progress to the blastocyst stage. However, their development in vivo is markedly reduced. This article summarizes the results obtained by the authors during several years of investigation. The results show for the first time that identical twins can be obtained in pigs which have been demonstrated to be a useful tool in biomedical research.

The use of porcine skin as a biomedical model for the human integument is discussed with reference to the literature. The epidermis and dermis can be used as a model as there are clear structural, functional and biochemical similarities with human skin layers. The actual utilization of porcine skin in dermatological research is reviewed. Practical difficulties are emphasized: in particular, the conditions required for use of porcine skin in experimental research, the most suitable breeds, and restrictions on biological interpretation of the results.

Livestock breeding is characterized by substantial increases in performance in recent years. However, pathophysiological changes have to be considered when increased production levels will exceed maximal physiological capacities. Gastrointestinal adaptation processes of ruminants kept under aride grazing conditions are discussed in comparison with european sheep breeds. The high stress susceptibility in pigs which is genetically determined is taken as a further example to explain the onset of diseases on the basis of pathophysiological mechanisms being induced by breeding techniques. From this the necessity for a close cooperation between animal breeding and physiology has to be concluded.

The studies were carried out on F1 progeny of multiparous Polish Large White sows and boars of Belgian Landrace, Hampshire x Pietrain hybrid, and Pietrain breed. The control group consisted of purebred Polish Large White pigs. The experimental part of the studies was performed on 120 fatteners divided up to 4 race groups, with 30 heads in each (namely 15 barrows and 15 gilts). Moreover, each group was divided into two following subgroups: the SoS one, which was given feed mixture with extracted soybean meal and the RpS one, which was given feed mixture with extracted rapeseed meal. The fattening started with 23 kg of body weight and was realized up to 100 kg. Twenty fatteners from each group (including 5 barrows and 5 gilts from a subgroup) were subjected to the control slaughter. The fatteners average daily body weight gains, and energy and digestible crude protein conversion per 1 kg of gain were as follows: after Belgain Landrace boars 788 g, 32.3 MJ and 358 g; after Hampshire x Pietrain boars 766 g, 33.6 MJ and 373 g; after Pietrain boars 720 g, 34.4 MJ and 382 g; after control group boars 705 g, 36.3 MJ and 403 g, respectively. It was found that hybrids after boars of evaluated breeds have positively (P < or = 0,01) better carcass meatness, and in a better way use digestible protein and metabolizable energy for production of 1 kg of meat. On that reason the best are hybrids after Belgian Landrace boars, carcasses of which yielded 52.4% of meat and converted 27% less of digestible crude protein and metabolizable energy for 1 kg meat production, than the White Large Polish fatteners. For no examined feature interaction between genotype and protein source in feeding diet was found. The growth rate and utilization of fodder were better for pigs fed on mixture with extracted soybean meal than for the ones fed on mixture with extracted rapeseed meal (P < or = 0.05). The fodders with high protein content did not differentiate meatness traits, whereas digestible crude protein and metabolizable energy conversion for 1 kg meat production in pigs, being given extracted soybean meal in diet, was lower (P < or = 0.05) than in pigs given extracted rapeseed meal.

Using continuous multigasmonitoring on the basis of photoacoustic spectralanalysis a mean concentration of ammonia of 8.1 ppm, nitrous oxide of 2.1 ppm and carbon dioxide of 0.12 Vol.-% was measured in a deep litter system for fattening pigs with additives. In slatted floor system with liquid manure storage the average concentration of ammonia (11.9 ppm) was significantly higher at the same period, whereas the concentration of nitrous oxide was appr. 0.2 ppm. Concentration of carbon dioxide in liquid manure system was lower (0.10 Vol.-%) than in deep litter system.

In this research the effect of different methods of iron supplementation, injection of Fe(III) dextran six or 70 hours post natum, oral Fe(III) dextran treatment or oral application of Fe(II)-Humat, each six hours post natum, was examined for the evaluation of hemoglobin, plasma iron and weight of suckling piglets within the first 24 days of life in different systems of stalling. The oral and parenteral iron dextran application resulted in a remarkable increase of the hemoglobin levels after the third day of life. On day eight the hemoglobin concentrations obtained by early postnatal iron administration were higher than the values after the usual iron injection on the third day of life. The iron incorporation by Fe-Humat was not sufficient for obtaining a rise in hemoglobin values. No significant differences were seen between the oral or parenteral iron dextran treated groups reared on iron containing floor. In the farrowing on plastic grates the piglets supplemented orally with iron dextran showed a decrease of hemoglobin level starting at day 14. At day 24 the values were significantly lower than after iron injection. In all treatment groups there were more anaemic piglets in the group farrowing system than in the separate farrowing system. Weight gain was remarkably worse too. The immediately postnatal treated piglets had significantly higher PI levels on day three than the animals treated at the third day of life. The plasma iron concentration decreased in all treatment groups from day eight, but the decrease was more important in the orally supplemented groups.

Results of continuous measurements of ammonia during three rounds with a total number of 297 days (appr. 7000 hour-values) and of behavioural investigations over 576 hours in two rounds at the begin, in the middle and at the end of fattening period have shown a high congruence of both variables (concentrations of ammonia; percentage of using self-feeders as indicator for animal activity) over 24 hour-cycle with a characteristic biphasic dynamics and two periods of increased values (after morning feeding between 7 and 9 a.m. and in the afternoon between 1 and 3 p.m.). The hour-averages of both parameters demonstrated a high significant positive correlation (r = 0.83; p < 0.01): concentration of ammonia is increasing with increasing animal activity. To evaluate concentration or emission of ammonia under the view point of animal or environmental hygiene it is necessary to consider the dynamics of NH3-values in choosing representative measurement points or periods.

The suckling behaviour, the development of daily weight gains and biochemical blood parameters (immunoglobulin G, total protein, glucose, urea) were investigated during the suckling period (35 days) of piglets (Sus scrofa) in a group housing system for nursing sows (group P: 4 primiparous sows, 34 piglets; group M: 4 multiparous sows, 43 piglets). Following an imprinting period of 10 days, piglets were given the opportunity to leave the farrowing pen and to interact with the other sows (variant e: suckling bouts at own mother only, variant f: suckling bouts also at one or more unfamiliar sows). Although a number of piglets suckled at unfamiliar sows (Pf = 73.5%; Mf = 32.5%; p = 0.01), only those piglets that stayed with their own mother after mixing had some "physiological advantages" (Pe: daily weight gain from day 10 to 35, p = 0.05; Me: IgG, p = 0.05). Piglets of primiparous sows had a lower teat pair fidelity within the imprinting period (day 1 to 10). During this time, piglets of both groups suckling at unfamiliar sows showed a lower teat pair fidelity (P: ns; M: p = 0.05), tended to prefer the posterior part of the udder, and their blood glucose and urea contents were higher (P: ns; M: p = 0.05). This was interpreted as an indication of competitive strain which obviously encouraged the piglets to leave their mothers. It is necessary to carry out further systematical studies on sociophysiological mechanisms.

Feeding a laxative like sodium sulphate before parturition is often reported as an effective MMA prophylaxis. In this study pigs were treated with different doses of Na2SO4. Consistency variations of feces were controlled by recording the dry matter contents. To provoke a significant increase in fecal water content 0.6 g Glauber's salt per kg bodyweight is successful in not constipated sows. The increased fluid content of the feces leads by multiplication of colon volume to rising distension stimuli and therefore increased peristaltic. Even with restricted feeding (1 kg per sow and day) accelerated discharge of feces is possible instead of constipation, 15 g sodium sulphate per sow is recorded as an underdose causing increases in fecal dry matter or even obstipation.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of a deficient copper and iron supply on the fatty acid composition of various tissues in pigs. An experiment was conducted with 4 x 12 growing pigs of the crossbreed Pietrain x Deutsche Landrasse. The animals were fed for a period of 119 days with a diet poor of copper (1.5 mg Cu/kg diet) and/or poor of iron (35 mg Fe/kg diet). Control animals were supplied adequately with copper (4.8 mg Cu/kg diet) and iron (85 mg Fe/kg diet). The diet was given according to weight. The copper and iron supply can be characterized as marginal due to a former report of this study. The total lipid and cholesterol content in serum, erythrocytes, liver and backfat was not influenced due to marginal copper and iron supply. Only in muscle there was a slightly reduction in these parameters. Marginal copper supply had no striking effect on the fatty acid composition in all examined tissues. After marginal iron supply there were some changes in the fatty acid composition in serum, erythrocytes and muscle. Saturated fatty acids raised due to declined monoenoic fatty acids, which is concluded as a reduced delta-9 desaturation.

In 23 litters, each with 10 or 11 piglets, the energy and nitrogen metabolism was measured on base of 218 body analyses in suckling piglets and on base of 96 total metabolism experiments in early weaned piglets, combined with 134 body analyses. The studies were carried out as part of a complex experimental program for the factorial derivation of energy and protein requirement of piglets and for measuring the milk production of lactating sows. The energy maintenance requirement of suckling piglets (sow's milk nutrition, I) and of early weaned piglets (sow's milk replacement on the basis of cow's milk, II) amounted to 468 (I) and 451 kJ (II) metabolizable energy per kg LW0.75 . d, the utilization of of metabolizable energy for energy deposition to 70(I) and 72% (II). With mean live weight gains (LWG) of 161 and 162 g per animal and day the cost per kg LWG amounted to 19.9 and 20.4 MJ gross energy, 19.3 and 19.4 MJ metabolizable energy as well as 14.4 and 14.2 MJ net energy-fat in suckling and early weaned piglets resp. The mean energy content of the LWG amounted to 8.9 (I) and to 7.9 MJ/kg (II).

The current discussion on "semi-natural" or "extensive" animal production and husbandry shows that such terms are vague and are often used for various meanings. This paper addresses what can be referred to as natural environmental conditions from an ethological point of view, as well as the animal's environment in today's animal production, and how "near to nature" animal husbandry can realistically be. Apart from some outdoor systems with few ethological problems, the predominant part of milk and meat production in the future will still largely take place indoors. Thus, the development of housing conditions which are more appropriate to the animal's needs will still be an important issue of farm animal behaviour science. Consequently the essential environmental requirements of cattle and pigs derived from their species-specific behaviour are described and explained. In the future, an improved fulfillment of ethological requirements will lead to increased group housing in cold and open, structured barns with indoor straw-bedded lying compartments and integrated outdoor feeding and activity areas. This process will also be influenced by ecological, economic and technical aspects. Finally, several studies on cattle and pigs are presented which demonstrate the possible benefits from more appropriate housing systems or the fulfillment of single ethological requirements regarding behaviour, health, fertility and production of the animals.

Investigations with 1248 newborn piglets in 7 farms showed a high significant influence of birth weight on parameters of early postnatal vitality. The duration between birth and first standing up was by two times, the time between birth and first udder contact by 3.5 times and the duration between birth and first colostrum intake was by 4 times longer in piglets with a low birth weight (< 800 g) in comparison with heavier piglets at birth (> 2200 g). The drop in rectal temperature up to 30 minutes after birth reached 4.5 Kelvin in lightweight piglets, whereas their litter mates with a high body weight at birth had a value of 0.85 K (p < 0.01). The birth weight of piglets belongs to the most important endogenous factors with influence on the vitality of newborn piglets and has a high prognostic value in relation to the risk of losses and the live weight development of neonates.

Electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings performed in piglets during Trapanal anaesthesia showed distinct changes in bioelectrical brain activity in some piglets when castration was carried out. Only an additional extradural anaesthesia seemed to interrupt the transmission of peripheral pain stimuli to the central nervous system. Based on the protocol used EEG did not reveal a marked response to noxious stimulation. Castration of piglets up to two weeks of age were performed during general anaesthesia with Trapanal or Disoprivan or local anaesthesia with Hostacain or without any anaesthesia. The different modes of anaesthesia have had no effects to postoperative wound healing and weight gain between groups as well as between males and females within single groups. With regard to insufficient analgesia and/or partially extreme secondary effects the application of investigated anaesthetic methods on the occasion of castration of piglets is not justifiable at present. Castration in piglets up to an age of two month without anaesthesia is allowed by the animal protection law. However, due to improved wound healing and decreased response to surgical stimulus we suggest to perform castration during the first 10 days after delivery.

Results of an analysis are presented, concerning the situation of animal welfare in keeping and housing of calves, pigs and laying hens. It is observed, that stockholders are making great efforts to follow the animal welfare regulations. Remaining problems of animal welfare in farms are described.

In two metabolism trials with growing and finishing pigs the effect of the antibiotic feed additives Avilamycin and Tylosin on the apparent digestibility of Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and Se was investigated. The feed additives were supplied to the diet in levels of 40 ppm (growing pigs) and 20 ppm (finishing pigs) each. Dietary contents of Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and Se covered the requirements of all treatment groups. Avilamycin and Tylosin increased the apparent digestibility by 4 (Fe), 4 (Zn), 5 (Cu), 2 (Mn) and 2 (Se) percentage units on an average.

The chemical composition and the energy content of the conception products, the reproductive organs and the live weight gains or losses of pregnant and lactating sows were determined in dependence on the litter number (1, 2 and 4) and the energy supply (120, 100 and 80% of requirement recommendation) of sows as well as on the course of gestation and lactation. The results will be used as a basis for factorial derivation of requirement recommendation. The deposition of protein and energy in the conception products in dependence on the time is characterized by an exponential function. The deposition of nutrients and energy in the conception products is increased with rising litter size. The deposition of nutrients and energy per fetus is lower in the litter number 1 than in the litter number 2 and 4. The energy supply in the selected limits has no significant influence on the litter size as well as on the intrauterine deposition of nutrients and energy. The litter number, the energy supply as well as the course of gestation and lactation influence considerably the weight, the chemical composition and the energy content in the mammary gland. The chemical composition and the energy content of the live weight gains or losses of pregnant and lactating sows are strong affected by the energy supply. The increased energy supply of the pregnant sows is connected with increased live weight gains and with increased contents of dry matter, fat and energy however decreased contents of protein in the live weight gains. The live weight losses of the lactating sows are connected with mobilisation of body fat and body protein. The proportion of body fat to body protein degradation is increased with increased losses of body weight. Regression equations are calculated for the relationships between course of gestation and lactation respectively and deposition of protein and energy in the conception products, reproductive organs and maternal live weight gains or losses of sows.

The authors investigated the influence of PGF 2 alpha on rate of conception in a single large pig production unit. Two groups of sows were selected at random before weaning, forming an experimental and a control group. The groups were treated as follows: Group 1 (experimental group) received a single intramuscular dose of 3 mg Alfaprostol one day before weaning. Group 2 (control group) received a single intramuscular dose of 2 ml physiologic saline intramuscular one day before weaning. The results are evaluated on the basis of parameter "return to estrus". The experimental group showed significant less (p < 0.05) sows returning to estrus than the control. This evidence suggests that the reason of unsatisfactory breeding performance after PG F2 alpha application may be the result of other influencing factors.

An animal model experiment was conducted with nine adult sows to study the effects of long-chain fatty acids on thermogenesis when different fatty acids were replaced for 30% of the energy of a basal diet based on cereals and soybean meal. The acids were fed as commercial products containing as main constituent either palmitic acid, oleic acid, or linoleic acid, according to a latin square design in experimental periods 2 to 4. In periods 1 and 5 the sows were submitted to basal diet alone. Digestibility of palmitic acid was only 36%, whereas the unsaturated fatty acids were highly absorbed (90%). Interaction effects of the undigested proportion of the long-chain fatty acids with the basal diet in hindgut fermentation could be ruled out since a supplementary experiment on three sows showed no influence of infusion of oleic or linoleic acid into the caecum on the energy utilization of the basal diet. There was no significant differences in thermogenesis among the fatty acids. Heat production in the treatment periods averaged -1.2% as compared to the basal diet periods. This result was in accordance with the value -1.0% calculated theoretically for the reduction in heat production in the treatment periods. Thus, the data did not indicate any stimulating effect of long-chain fatty acids on heat production, and utilization of energy of fatty acids occurred within the obligatory thermogenesis.

The performance of electrical stunning in abattoirs is being investigated with regard to animal welfare. The results emphasize the necessity of appropriate training for all persons involved with the stunning and slaughter of livestock. The discussion includes problems associated with stunning. References are made to technical equipment used for monitoring electrical stunning and personal safety precautions.

According to animal protection the transport and proceeding of slaughtering are a difficult topic to cope with. The section of people is often restricted to distrust and rejection. In order to achieve improvement we need laws which prescribe the transport standards in particular with regard to the duration of driving and resting periods and the feeding. Transports which exceed 12 h enlarge the risk of disregarding laws and prescriptions and should on principle be prohibited. At least the important coherence between protection of slaughter animals on the one hand and the meat quality on the other hand requires a careful treatment of the animals from the producer to the slaughtering. The only successful options are strict control and high penalties. To get the method of narcosis of pigs out of common criticism we should lead our minds into a new direction: In this case animal protection should be more reflected to than meat hygiene problems and therefore the possibility of a provoked heart failure before the bleeding out should be realized.