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There has been considerable scholarly interest in the relationship between language and national identity. The topic is vast and multi-faceted, but in this paper we are especially interested in the manner in which the perceived interdependence between ‘mother tongue’ and ‘fatherland’ has often prompted policies intended to protect the former, and therefore the latter, of whatever was regarded as harmful influence. In particular, we intend to survey some lexicographical work undertaken in Great Britain and (what is now) Romania between the middle of the 18th century and the beginning of the 20th century in order to compare decisions on prescriptivism or descriptivism in dictionaries, and the reasons behind them. While some background information will be necessary, our main focus will be the language metaphors which lexicographers and other people who brought a contribution to dictionary making resorted to in order to support their arguments in favour of or against prescriptivism/descriptivism.

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Moral purism is the view that doing evil is never allowed, even as a means to prevent a greater evil. This article assesses two main versions of moral purism and shows that they are implausible. The first version claims that it is always impermissible to choose an option that results in a bad states of affairs, while the second version claims that it is always impermissible to choose an option that is wrong, even if it is only prima facie wrong. I contend that both versions are incomplete, in the sense that they are unable to provide practical guidance for cases in which all available options result in bad states of affairs, or in which all available options are prima facie wrong.

The paper is an attempt to draw the reader’s attention to visual reproduction as an element of modern artistic discourses and a medium of the mediated reception of art. An instrumental approach to reproduction as a neutral and ancillary vehicle of meaning, prevalent in the age of modernism, corresponded to the belief in its information efficacy and ability to overcome material, physical limitations. What mattered most were not the material, physical aspects of the existence and circulation of images, even though the avant-garde artists of the 1920s, using contemporary technology, were aware how important the medium’s and its distribution range’s “impact” was. L’Esprit Nouveau, a periodical edited in 1920-1925 by Amédée Ozenfant and Le Corbusier, was an example of a successful avant-garde strategy which let both editors, marginal in the field of art, achieve the status of “leaders” of the modernist movement, recognized or at least carefully watched by artists and critics abroad. Next to other factors, important was the visual aspect of the magazine, praised for many impressive, modern illustrations, often reproduced in other avant-garde publications. The author analyzes visual resources used and reproduced in L’Esprit Nouveau, referring to the postulates of “objectivism” and “thingness”, endorsed by the periodical, and considering the part that “ready-made” images, found in the daily press and commercial catalogues as well as on postcards. played in Le Corbusier’s polemical and programmatic texts. Their strongly persuasive message was often rooted in montage and quotations which stressed its heterogeneity. In terms of composition and aesthetics, the reproduced images supported the aesthetics of transparency, order, and thingness, so characteristic of L’Esprit Nouveau. The emblems of modernity emerged from the movement of anonymous images which acquired the value of symbols. Ozenfant’s and Le Corbusier’s use of images borrowed from popular culture, as well as from albums and art books, makes one consider not only their rhetorical effectiveness, but also their role in the creative process and thinking. In Le Corbusier’s artistic practice, those easily available, miniaturized images were a common instrument enhancing his visual, aesthetic approach. Such an approach, according to Georg Simmel, seems to be characteristic of the modernist attitude to the material world that consisted in subjective distance combined with the apparently opposite desire to “go back to things” by making them more concrete and closer to the senses.

Language purism is often associated with opposition towards foreign linguistic elements, most typically foreign vocabulary. Most definitions therefore include the dichotomy of foreign versus domestic and/or national and/or un-national. This article takes a look at the Norwegian language reformer Knud Knudsen (1812–1895) and his arguments for excluding most (but not all) foreign words. This leads to a specification of the term foreign, and a description of various arguments for categorizing certain elements as unwanted.

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Abstract: The lexicographical presentation of terms from the field of language planning often lacks clear and unambiguous distinction and proper explanation. Too often dictionaries even fail to include these terms in the lemma list, and some central terms have not been treated in any general or special purpose dictionary. This article utilises results from research in the field of language policy to make suggestions for the lexicographical presentation and treatment of a number of relevant terms. The emphasis on a distinction between language policy as applied to the intralingual and the interlingual level and the motivation for the introduction of the notion of a communication policy should help lexicographers to give a more comprehensive account of terms from this field and it will also benefit scholars in the field of language policy. A second aspect of this article is the discussion of ways in which dictionaries participate in the implementation of language policy. It is indicated that lexicographers make ever so many decisions of a language political nature. In this regard the lexicographical influence of issues like linguistic hegemony and language purism are discussed. Suggestions are also made for future lexicographical procedures.Keywords: COMMUNICATION POLICY, INTERLINGUAL, INTRALINGUAL, LANGUAGEPLANNING, LANGUAGE POLICY, LANGUAGE PROMOTION, LEXICOGRAPHY,LINGUISTIC HEGEMONY, PRESCRIPTIVE, PURISMOpsomming: Hoe om taalbeleid met woordeboeke te bepaal. Die leksikografieseaanbieding van terme uit die veld van taalbeplanning kort dikwels duidelike en ondubbelsinnigeonderskeiding en behoorlike verklaring. Woordeboeke laat te dikwels na om hierdie terme indie lemmalys in te sluit, en sommige kernterme word in geen algemene of vakwoordeboek behandelnie. Hierdie artikel benut resultate van navorsing op die terrrein van taalbeplanning om voorstellete maak vir die leksikografiese aanbieding en behandeling van 'n aantal relevante terme. Dieklem op die onderskeid tussen taalbeleid soos dit toegepas word op die intratalige en intertaligevlak en die motivering van die invoering van die idee van 'n kommunikasiebeleid behoort leksikograwete help om 'n meer omvattende verslag te bied van terme vanuit hierdie veld en dit sal ooknavorsers op die terrein van taalpolitiek bevoordeel. 'n Tweede aspek van hierdie artikel is diebespreking van maniere waarop woordeboeke deelneem aan die implementering van taalpolitiek.Daar word aangedui dat leksikograwe talle besluite van 'n taalpolitieke aard neem. In hierdie verbandword die leksikografiese invloed op kwessies soos linguistiese hegemonie en taalpurismebespreek. Voorstelle word ook gemaak vir toekomstige leksikografiese werkswyses.Sleutelwoorde: INTERTALIG, INTRATALIG, KOMMUNIKASIEBELEID, LEKSIKOGRAFIE,LINGUISTIESE HEGEMONIE, PRESKRIPTIEF, PURISME, TAALBELEID, TAALBEPLANNING,TAALBEVORDERING

ABSTRACT: The influence of foreign languages in Sesotho sa Leboa, or Northern Sotho, results in borrowing, which ultimately leads to an increase in the vocabulary of Sesotho sa Leboa. The languages influencing developments in the vocabulary of Sesotho sa Leboa include, inter alia, English, Afrikaans, Xitsonga, Tshivend√a and the Nguni languages. This article aims to give a critical analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the adoption of foreign lexical items in the lemmatization of vocabulary in Sesotho sa Leboa dictionaries. Most puristic inclined academics and intellectuals are reluctant to adopt loan words as a means of developing the Sesotho sa Leboa vocabulary. When confronted with borrowing, the purists usually prefer coinage, using indigenous lexical items to name foreign concepts. This is disadvantageous to the development of the vocabulary of the language because (1) there is no increase in the number of the lexical items in the language since only the meanings of the foreign lexical item are added to existing indigenous lexical items, and (2) in most cases, previously adopted loan words are mistaken for indigenous lexical items and given preference to newly acquired lexical items which have direct and accurate bearing on the meaning of the newly discovered or designed concepts or objects.OPSOMMING: Ontlening en leenwoorde: Die lemmatisering van nuutverworwe leksikale items in Sesotho sa Leboa. Die invloed van vreemde tale op Sesotho sa Leboa, of Noord-Sotho, het ontlening tot gevolg, wat uiteindelik lei tot 'n toename in die woordeskat van Sesotho sa Leboa. Die tale wat ontwikkelinge in die woordeskat van Sesotho sa Leboa beïnvloed, sluit onder andere Engels, Afrikaans, Xitsonga, Tsivend√a en die Ngunitale in. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om 'n kritiese ontleding van die voordele en nadele van die oorneem van vreemde leksikale items by die lemmatisering van die woordeskat in woordeboeke van Sesotho sa Leboa te gee. Die meeste puristies gesinde akademici en intellektuele is onwillig om leenwoorde oor te neem as 'n manier om die woordeskat van Sesotho sa Leboa te ontwikkel. Wanneer hulle met ontlening gekonfronteer word, verkies puriste gewoonlik nuutskeppinge deur gebruikmaking van inheemse leksikale items om vreemde konsepte te benoem. Dit is nadelig vir die ontwikkeling van die woordeskat van die taal omdat (1) daar geen toename in die aantal leksikale items is nie aangesien slegs die betekenisse van die vreemde leksikale items tot die bestaande inheemse leksikale items toegevoeg word, en (2) in die meeste gevalle voorheen oorgeneemde leenwoorde aangesien word vir inheemse leksikale items en daaraan voorkeur gegee word bo nuutverworwe leksikale items wat 'n direkte en presiese verband met die betekenis van die nuutontdekte of -ontwerpte konsepte of objekte het.Sleutelwoorde: ONTLENING, LEENWOORDE, LEKSIKALE ITEMS, VREEMDE AANWINSTE, VREEMDE WOORDE, NUUTSKEPPING, NUUTGESKEPTE LEKSIKALE ITEMS, PURISME, STANDAARDTAAL, STANDAARDISERING, LEMMATISERING, ONTWIKKELDE TALE, KORPUSSE

The article discusses linguistic transfer between German and several Slavic languages resulting from cultural contact. The author examines the claim that the amount of such language transfer (linguistic interference) is dependent on the so-called size factor or size of the speaker's community. After looking at several speakers' communities and controlling for other variables, the author found no direct correlation between the amount of linguistic transfer and the size of the speaker's community. The author suggests a possible reason for the varying transfer amounts.