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The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is a mountain grouse species listed in the Red Lists of Switzerland and other countries of Europe. As a consequence of its conservation status, human activities are restricted in most of its remaining habitats. One sub-population of the capercaillie is located in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The margins of one of its territories are increasingly used by snowshoe hikers and ski tourers at the capercaillie’s most vulnerable time, during winter. In order to identify and monitor possible interferences, we tested whether drones can help to detect snowshoe and ski tourer tracks in the winter landscape and whether there is any reaction of wildlife to the drones. Results indicate that certain environmental conditions are needed to carry out accurate drone flights, but that with optimal technical and aeronautical settings, it is possible to gain aerial images that allow winter activities by humans to be identified, and even quantified. No disturbances to wildlife were identified. The findings indicate that drones can be used as a low-cost monitoring tool for detecting human winter activities in remote places, which represent a fast-growing threat to wildlife in mountain areas.

Die alpinen Regionen sind besonders für die Vorländer von sehr großer hydrologischer Bedeutung, jedoch sind die verschiedenen Wasserflüsse und deren Bilanzierung im Gebirgsraum nur schwierig zu erfassen und zu modellieren. Die extreme Orografie und die Abgelegenheit erschweren den Zugang und die Wartung der Messinstrumente im Untersuchungsraum. Zugleich sind die hydrometeorologischen Änderungen über die Fläche bedeutend. Das Zugspitzplatt bietet aufgrund der vorhandenen Infrastruktur durch die Forschungsstation Schneefernerhaus und durch vorangehende Studien optimale Bedingungen für die Erforschung der Hydrologie eines Hochgebirgsraums. Die Auswertung von jahrelang kontinuierlich erhobenen meteorologischen und hydrologischen Daten ermöglicht ein besseres Verständnis über den Wasserhaushalt und der Abflussgenese in einem hochalpinen Einzugsgebiet. Hydrochemische Untersuchungen mittels stabiler Isotope des Wassers und der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit als natürliche Umwelttracer liefern den Beleg für unterschiedliche Abflussprozesse im unterirdischen Karstsystem des Zugspitzplatts und ermöglichen die Trennung von Abflusskomponenten wie den Schmelzwasserabfluss. Folgende Ergebnisse wurden erzielt: Die für die Wasserbilanz wichtigen Eingangsgrößen Niederschlag und Schneeschmelze konnten erfasst und aufbereitet werden. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass die Erfassung von Schneeniederschlägen, insbesondere durch windinduzierte Verluste, stark fehlerbehaftet ist. Über 50 % der Schneeniederschläge werden teilweise nicht erfasst. Dagegen können Schneeaufwirbelung und Schneeverfrachtung durch Wind innerhalb des Einzugsgebiets zu irreführenden Niederschlagsaufzeichnungen führen. Zudem war kein eindeutiger Höhengradient im Einzugsgebiet erkennbar, obwohl kontinuierliche Niederschlags¬messungen an verschiedenen Standorten mit über 1.000 m Höhenunterschied durchgeführt wurden. Tracerbasierte hydrologische Untersuchungen lieferten den Beleg für das Vorhandensein eines Karstwasserspeichers im phreatischen Bereich unter dem Zugspitzplatt, der durch nachrückendes Ereigniswasser teilweise ausgetauscht wird. Durch die Verwendung stabiler Wasserisotope konnte ein austauschbares Speichervolumen im phreatischen Bereich bestimmt werden, das etwa die Hälfte der sommerlichen Niederschlagsmenge umfasst. Darüber liegt ein vadoser, aktiver Bereich, welcher einem variablen Füllungstand im Jahresverlauf unterworfen ist. Das variable Speichervolumen ließ sich durch die Analyse des Auslaufverhaltens an der Partnachquelle quantifizieren. Die Partnachquelle wird somit aus tiefem Karstwasser sowie frischem Ereigniswasser aus Niederschlägen und Schneeschmelze gespeist. Diese Dissertation unterstreicht die Komplexität der Abflussgenese im hochalpinen Einzugsgebiet der Partnachquelle und hebt die Wichtigkeit weiterer Forschungen zur Hochgebirgshydrologie hervor, denn die Alpen beeinflussen maßgeblich den Wasserhaushalt der Vorländer. The alpine regions are of very great hydrological importance, especially for the foothills, but the various water flows and their balancing in the mountain area are difficult to record and model. The extreme orography and remoteness make it difficult to access and maintain the measuring instruments in the examination area. At the same time, the hydro-meteorological changes over the area are significant. The Zugspitzplatt offers optimal conditions for researching the hydrology of a high mountain area due to the existing infrastructure provided by the Schneefernerhaus research station and by previous studies. The evaluation of continuously collected meteorological and hydrological data over many years enables a better understanding of the water balance and the genesis of runoff in a high alpine catchment area. Hydrochemical investigations using natural environmental tracers as the stable isotopes of water and electric conductivity provide evidence of different runoff processes in the underground karst system of the Zugspitzplatt and enable the separation of runoff components such as meltwater runoff. The following results were achieved: The input variables precipitation and snowmelt, which are important for the water balance, were recorded and processed. It turned out that the detection of snow precipitation, in particular due to wind-induced losses, is highly error-prone. More than 50 % of the snow precipitation is partly not recorded. Conversely, snow swirling and snow displacement by wind within the catchment area can lead to incorrect precipitation records. In addition, no clear height gradient was identified in the catchment area, although continuous precipitation measurements were carried out on different spots with an altitudinal difference of more than 1.000 m. Tracer-based hydrological investigations provide evidence of the existence of a karst water reservoir in the phreatic zone in the karst body beneath the Zugspitzplatt, which is exchanged by the water recharging the karst groundwater. By using stable water isotopes, it was possible to determine an exchangeable storage volume in the phreatic zone that holds around half of the amount of summer precipitation. Above it is a vadose, active area, which is subject to a variable fill level over the course of the year. The variable storage volume was quantified by analyzing the leakage behavior at the Partnach spring. The Partnach spring is thus fed from deep karst water and fresh event water from precipitation and snowmelt. This dissertation emphasizes the complexity of the genesis of runoff in the high alpine catchment area of the Partnach spring and highlights the importance of further research on high mountain hydrology, as the Alps significantly influence on the water balance of the foothills.

The mountain regions in Romania and European Union represent a special territory of interest, with a huge economic, social, environmental and cultural potential. More, mountain area is considerate a natural-economic region and constitutes an important objective for regional development policy. The main sectors of mountain area are presented in agriculture and tourism fields that lead the key role in safeguarding the sensitive eco-system and thereby maintaining the general living and working space.Mountain areas should have a specific policy defined by the sustainable development principle, which meets the needs of the present without compromising the opportunities of future generations. The specific mountain policy aims to reduce the imbalance between favored and disadvantaged mountain regions, permanently marked by natural, economic, social, cultural and environmental constraints. In previous programming period, mountain regions among have profited from the intensive regional support, in specially, for constructing of and connecting them to fresh water and waste water networks, in particular for increasing of life quality. In context of 2020 Strategy, the Member States will concentrate investments on a small number of thematic objectives. In advanced regions, 60 % of funds will used for only two of these objectives (competitiveness of SME and research/innovation). The all less developed regions will received about 50% of Structural Funds In Romania, mountain representing 29.93% out of the total national surface and 20.14% from UAA (Utilised Agricultural Area) of total national. The mountain territory has around 20% of the national population and is overlapping almost 100% with the Carpathian Mountains. Due to these conditions, Romania's regional development policy must take into account the specificities of mountain area, the problems they faced, and the requirements of 2020 Strategy.This paper presents the main aspects to be taken into account for sustainable development of mountain areas in Romania, in context of 2020 Strategy.

Die vorliegende Bachelorarbeit befasst sich mit dem ersten alpinen Umweltbildungszentrum der Schweiz, dem Pro Natura Zentrum Aletsch. Als eines von zwei nationalen Pro Natura Zentren setzt es sich für den Schutz der Natur und eine nachhaltige Entwicklung ein. Durch den integrierten Pensionsbetrieb und die Einbettung in ein touristisches Berggebiet agiert das Zentrum als Akteur im Tourismus und möchte sich dabei als Pionierbetrieb für Nachhaltigkeit stetig weiterentwickeln. Das Pro Natura Zentrum Aletsch wurde dafür umfassend in Bezug auf Nachhaltigkeit analysiert. Dafür wurden Expert:innen-Interviews, eine Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung und eine Gästeumfrage durchgeführt. Die Interviews dienten der Informationsbeschaffung über das Zentrum und für die Bewertung. Die Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung hat ergeben, dass das Pro Natura Zentrum Aletsch bereits ein hohes Engagement betreibt, um Nachhaltigkeit im Betrieb umzusetzen. Dabei sticht vor allem der Bereich «Bewusster Um-gang mit Energie» positiv hervor. Die «Gästeinformation über Nachhaltigkeit» hat die tiefste Bewertung erhalten. Dennoch gibt es in allen bewerteten Kategorien Verbesserungspotenzial zu bezeichnen. Dabei werden das Nachhaltigkeitsmanagement und die Nachhaltigkeitskommunikation als zentrale Handlungsfelder identifiziert, damit bereits umgesetzte Nachhaltigkeitsmassnahmen effektiver koordiniert und nach aussen kommuniziert werden können. Die Gästeumfrage hat gezeigt, dass die Stärke vom Pro Natura Zentrum Aletsch im authentischen Naturerlebnis und dem hohen Bezug zur Aletschregion liegt. In einem Nachhaltigkeits-workshop wurde mit der Zentrumsleitung eine erste Grundlage für den weiteren Nachhaltigkeitsprozess gelegt. Die Ergebnisse der Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung, der Gästeumfrage und des Workshops flossen in die Ausarbeitung der Handlungsempfehlungen ein. Die 53 Mass-nahmen wurden in einer Excel-Datei zusammengefasst und anhand von Umsetzungszeitraum und Relevanz für die Nachhaltigkeit priorisiert. Als zentrale Handlungsfelder wurden das Nachhaltigkeitsmanagement, die Nachhaltigkeitskommunikation sowie die betriebliche Nachhaltigkeit definiert., This bachelor thesis deals with the first alpine environmental education centre in Switzerland, the Pro Natura Centre Aletsch. As one of two national Pro Natura centres, it is committed to the protection of nature and sustainable development. Through the integrated guesthouse and the embedding in a tourist mountain area, the centre acts as a player in tourism and wants to continuously develop as a pioneer project. The Pro Natura Centre Aletsch will be comprehensively analysed in terms of sustainability. This is done with expert interviews, a sustainability assessment and a guest survey. The sustainability assessment showed that the Pro Natura Centre Aletsch is already highly committed to implementing sustainability in its operations. The area «Conscious use of energy» in particular stands out positively. «Guest information on sustainability» received the lowest rating. Nevertheless, there is potential for improvement in all the categories assessed. Sustainability management and sustainability communication are identified as central fields of action, so that sustainability measures already implemented can be coordinated more effectively and communicated to the outside world. The guest survey showed that the strength of the Pro Natura Centre Aletsch lies in the authentic experience of nature and the high connection to the Aletsch Region. In a sustainability workshop, a basis for the further sustainability process was laid with the centre management. The results of the sustainability assessment, the survey and the workshop were incorporated into the development of the recommendations for action. The 53 measures were summarised in an Excel file and prioritised according to implementation period and relevance for sustainability. Sustainability management, sustainability communication and operational sustainability were defined as the main topic areas for the recommendations.

This article addresses the degree of sustainability generated by trail races in the development of the territory in protected mountain areas, focusing on the extent of the protection of natural areas and on the kinds of entities that organize these events. It is based on the feedback from 95 questionnaires completed by a sample of organizers of trail-race events held within 26 protected mountain areas in Catalonia in 2015. Analysis allowed us to identify those trail races with the most exemplary practices. No differences in the degree of sustainable development were found with regard to the degree of protection of natural areas. Profit-making organizations generate a greater degree of sustainability where development of the territory is concerned than do non-profit entities. The study provides protected mountain area managers and trail-race managers with an instrument with which to diagnose the impact that such races have on the land.

Die Salzofenhöhle im Toten Gebirge in der Steiermark, deren Haupteingang auf 2005 Metern Seehöhe liegt, gilt als eine große Fundstelle für Zähne und Knochen (Schädel, Schädelfragmente, Metapodien) des Höhlenbären. Unter K. Ehrenberg wurde das Material in den Jahren 1939 und von 1959 bis 1964 im Namen des Bundesdenkmalamtes sichergestellt. Laut der taxonomischen Bestimmung kam man zu dem Entschluss, dass es sich bei diesen Funden um Ursus spelaeus eremus handeln müsse (vgl. RABEDER et al. 2008). Teils befindet sich das geborgene Kammerhofmaterial im Museum in Bad Aussee, aber auch im Institut für Paläontologie der Universität Wien und im Naturhistorischen Museum sind Fundstücke vorhanden. Bei Letzterem handelt es sich um das fossile Material, das während der Grabungen zwischen 1959 und 1964 geborgen wurde. Dieses wurde im Rahmen von Forschungsarbeiten vermessen und inventarisiert. Außerdem wurde bei den Prämolaren (P4 sup/p4 inf) und den zweiten Mahlzähnen (M2 sup/m2 inf) der Morphotyp bestimmt (vgl. KÖNIG 2019). Die Daten wurden in Form einer Tabelle festgehalten und im Rahmen dieser Diplomarbeit mit den standardisierten Werten der Gamssulzen-Höhle verglichen. Auf diesem Wege kommt es zu einer vollständigen Inventarisierung der Höhlenbärenfunde aus der Salzofenhöhle aus den Grabungen zwischen 1959 bis 1964. Dadurch ist es möglich, aktuelle und neue Forschungsergebnisse miteinander zu vergleichen, diese zu verifizieren oder falsifizieren beziehungsweise sie gegebenenfalls zu erweitern., The „Salzofenhöhle“ is a cave located in the mountain area of “Totes Gebirge” in Styria and has its entrance at an altitude of 2005 m. This cave is a well-known source for teeth and bones (fragments from skull, metapodials) originating from the ancient cave bear. At this location corresponding relics were collected in 1939 and from 1959 to 1964 under supervision by K. Ehrenberg and the Austrian Monument Protection Office. According to taxonomic investigations, the material collected was identified to belong to Ursus speleaus eremus (RABEDER et al. 2008). Today, different relics of this origin are part of the collections hosted at the local museum of Bad Aussee, at the Institute of Paleontology of the University of Vienna and also at the Nature Historical Museum in Vienna, where fossile material mined during the period of 1959 to 1964 was precisely measured and registered in an inventory. Recently, the morphology of the premolars (P4 sup/p4 inf) as well as of the second molars (M2 sup/m2 inf) was typed (KÖNIG 2019). Within the present thesis, all elaborated data were fed into a table and put into context with the standardized values of another cave, the so-called “Gamssulzen-Höhle”. Owing to the present work, all the fossile material of the Salzofenhöhle originating from the second collection period could be completely registered in an inventory and now forms the scientific basis to assess and to verify the findings, thus enabling further amendments to this subject.

e-Forschungsberichte, Faszikel 2 (2014), From 2004 to 2010 archaeological sites of a so far unknown Late Bronze Age culture were investigated in the high mountain region south of the spa Kislovodsk (Stavropol��� region, North Caucasus, Russia) (Fig. 1). Meanwhile, more than 260 sites are known from field surveys. In 2011, at one of these sites, dating to c. the second millennium BC (late Bronze Age), burials from the 5th century BC (late Scythian period) have been discovered. This coincidence is remarkable, since archaeological evidence of this period is extremely scarce, the site being the first ever found in the mountain area. The small necropolis of ten burials in stoneboxes and cairns contained a large and exquisite range of finds. The objects of outstanding quality are either the markers of an important trade route across the mountains or they can be considered as loot of a robbers��� band.

In the mountain area, a comprehenvie understanding of flow and deformation processes is indispensable for the construction of large buildings for water management such as Dams and embankments in fractured rock. For such buildings, the safety aspects like protection of lives, property and the environment should have the highest priority. In reservoir operation with fluctuating water levels, a change of the mechanical properties of the surrounding rock would be caused. Their influence on the local groundwater conditions and the stability of the neighboring slopes should be predicted and evaluated by using numerical hydraulic-mechanical models. As a typical case study, the limestone quarry „Michelreibershalde“ in Blaubeuren is integrated in the plans for the “PSW-Blautal” pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant. The preferred option for the plant setup is to integrate the lower reservoir into the groundwater without sealing. Extensive geological and hydrogeological investigations have been undertaken for the Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) plant in order to characterize the Jurasic karst aquifer in which the lower reservoir will be constructed. In addition to in-situ inverstigations, numerical modelling was carried out as a reliable predicting tool for the planning approval. However, the numerical modelling of fractured rock have currently still numerous uncertainties. A major reason is that a large-scale fractured system consists of a high number of individual fractures. Due to the limited computing power at the present time, a large-scale fractured system can not be simulated successfully by using discrete fracture network model directly. In the present work, a method was developed to evaluate the hydraulic conductivity and representa-tive elementary volume (REV) in fractured rock, which can be used for the hydraulic or coupled hydrome-chanic modeling of large-scale fractured system. For the fractured rock at the site, a minimum hydraulic and mechanic REV was determined with a size of 28 m × 28 m and 12 m × 12 m, separately. Consequently, it is possible to replace the fractured system by an equivalent continuum both in groundwater flow modeling as well as coupled hydromechanical seepage stability analysis. Regarding the numerical modeling, the impacts of the PSH constructions and operations on the groundwater dependent ecosystems and the stability of neighboring slopes were reliably predicted and evaluated. The results of the numerical modeling conclude that the preferred construction concept is practicable from a hydraulic point of view; also the slope of the lower reservoir showed stability under the influence of the designed PSH operations. From the application field of the PSH, the used methods can be transferred not only for other buildings of water management, but also in other applications fileds of engineering and geosciences, such as safe storage of CO2, the use of deep geothermal energy and the disposal of radioactive waste in fractured rock.

Though Eduard Zander’s original sketchbook with drawings in pen and ink – showing the remote Simen Mountain area – is still preserved in London, his adventuresome life and his scientific and artistic work as a biologist, architect or artisan is scarcely known in 19th century Ethiopian history. In the present article the author makes an attempt at Zander’s biography, adding the missing links and correcting the errors of his few predecessors; furthermore, he tries to produce recently dicovered source-material in an updated form., Aethiopica, Vol 8 (2005)

Im Reiherbachtal im Solling (Niedersachsen) wird ein im Besitz der Niedersächsischen Landesforsten befindlicher lichter Bestand etwa 200-jähriger Alteichen seit dem Sommer 2000 zum Erhalt des „Hutewaldcharakters“ mit Heckrindern und Exmoorponys beweidet. Im Rahmen der wissenschaftlichen Begleitung des als Erprobungs- und Entwicklungsprojekt (E+E) des Bundesamtes für Naturschutz ins Leben gerufenen, verkürzt meist „Hutewaldprojekt“ genannten Waldweidevorhabens zum Schutz von Arten und Lebensgemeinschaften wurde von Januar 1999 (Vorstudie) bis zum Dezember 2005 (Ende der wissenschaftlichen Begleituntersuchungen) unter anderem auch die Flechtenflora des knapp 200 ha großen Projektgebietes erfasst. Dabei wurden 189 Taxa festgestellt, eine im Vergleich mit Literaturangaben aus anderen deutschen Waldgebieten bundesweit herausragende Artenfülle. Hierin enthalten sind unter anderem 28 obligat oder fakultativ lichenicole bzw. saprophytische, flechtenähnliche Pilze, die traditionell von der Flechtenkunde mitbearbeitet werden. Da die Fachliteratur für das entsprechend zu berücksichtigende Inventar keine eindeutigen Vorgaben macht, wird eine fachlich begründete Empfehlung hierfür abgeleitet. Zusätzlich ist der Anteil landes- wie bundesweit gefährdeter Arten mit 54% bzw. 47% überdurchschnittlich hoch. Sieben Arten sind Erstnachweise für das Land Niedersachsen, eine davon auch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Der Anteil der Epiphyten liegt bei 75%, knapp zwei Drittel der Arten kann eine positive Prognose gestellt werden, sollte die Beweidung fortgeführt werden. Im speziellen Teil vorliegender Arbeit werden alle 189 nachgewiesenen Arten in Text und Bild dokumentiert. Die Auswertung der dort zusammengetragenen artspezifischen Parameter zeigt, dass im Gebiet die Eiche bedeutenstes Trägergehölz epiphytischer Arten ist, was den in der Fachliteratur dokumentierten Befunden aus anderen Waldgebieten entspricht. Zugleich ist auf diesem Gehölz der Anteil gefährdeter Arten besonders hoch. Die in Forstwirtschaftskreisen weit verbreiteten Methoden der forstlichen Standortcharaktersierung mittels Zeigerwerten und Hemerobiegraden von Artenlisten führen über auch aus anderen naturräumlichen Daten zu gewinnende Erkenntnisse hinaus kaum zu weiterführenden Einsichten. Erst eine räumlich kleinskaligere Auswertung (hier auf Basis von Rasterfeldern zu 100 m x 100 m) bzw. Verwendung der in aktueller Literatur als künftig nicht mehr zu nutzen empfohlener Toxitoleranzzahlen sowie des aus anderen Zeigerwerten zu berechnenden KO-Wertes erbringt für die naturschutzfachliche Planung wichtige Zusatzinformationen über Ballungsräume seltener Arten bzw. aus Artenschutzgründen umgehend anders als bisher zu behandelnder Teilgebiete. Erstmals für deutsche bzw. niedersächsische Verhältnisse anwendbar gemacht wird eine Bewertung von Waldgebieten unter Verwendung der in ihnen erhobenen Flechtenartenlisten mit Hilfe des in Großbritannien entwickelten Revised Index of Ecological Continuity (RIEC). Er erlaubt die Ansprache eines Untersuchungsgebietes als naturschutzfachlich besonders wertvoller historisch alter Wald. Dabei bietet er die Vorteile, mittels einer vergleichsweise einfach und ganzjährig zu erhebenden Artengruppe verlässliche Aussagen zu erhalten und gleichzeitig stellvertretend für andere, schwieriger zu untersuchende Artengruppen zu stehen. Auch der britische New Index of Ecological Continuity (NIEC) wird für hiesige Verhältnisse weiterentwickelt. Beide Verfahren sind für eine Übertragung auf andere Bundesländer geeignet, bedürfen dort wie auch in Niedersachsen aber noch der statistisch abgesicherten Optimierung mittels weiterer vergleichender Untersuchungen. Angesichts des Status des Reiherbachtales als Teil des Flora-Fauna-Habitat- und Vogelschutz-Gebietes „Wälder im südlichen Solling“, dem im Gebiet anzuwendenden Erlass des Landes zur langfristigen ökologischen Waldentwicklung (LÖWE) sowie weiterer naturschutzrechtlicher Rahmenbedingungen einerseits und der „Problematik“ der Naturverjüngung der Eiche in weiten Teilen Mitteleuropas sowie den positiven Erfahrungen und Literaturanregungen hierzu, insbesondere bei Anwesenheit großer Pflanzenfresser andererseits wird für die Fortführung der begonnenen Waldbeweidung dringend plädiert. Zumindest ist das so genannte „Habitatbaum-Konzept“ der Niedersächsischen Landesforsten ebenso als nicht ausreichend zu verwerfen wie die nicht zielführende, sondern im Gegenteil sogar schädliche Verjüngungspraxis der Forstbehörden. Ein weiterführendes, an den naturschutzfachlichen Konditionen orientiertes Zukunftsszenario für das Reiherbachtal könnte nach Ansicht des Verfassers ferner die Schaffung eines großflächigen modernen Hutewaldgebietes im Sinne des in Amerika und Sibirien diskutierten „Pleistocene Re-wilding“ sein. In the low mountain area of the Solling Mountains (Lower Saxony), particularly in the valley of the Reiherbach, light oak stands of about 200 years have been grazed by Heck cattle and Exmoor ponies since summer 2000 in order to maintain the character of a woodland pasture. The approximately 200 ha area is owned by the federal state of Lower Saxony. Within the scientific part of a testing and development project funded by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation the distribution of lichen-species was carried out from January 1999 till December 2005. Compared to literature on lichens in German forests, the extraordinary high number of 189 taxa was found. As obligatory or facultative lichenicolous or saprophytic lichen like fungi are traditionally included by lichenological investigations, such 28 species are also considered within the 189 species of this study. The proportion of endangered species on regional as well as on national level is very high (54% and 47% respectively). Seven species were found for the first time in Lower Saxony, one species is new for Germany. The proportion of epiphytes is about 75%, about two thirds have a positive perspective if grazing will continue. All 189 species are described in detail. Due to the species specific requirements, oak trees are the most important carriers for epiphytic species which is in accordance with literature on other forest areas. The proportion of endangered species on oak-trees is exceptionally high. Standard methods from forestry to characterize stands by indicators and grades of hemeroby obtained from species lists are not fine tuned. Only when results of smaller plots (here: 100 m x 100 m) are used, preferably in combination with indicators on tolerance for toxicity, important additional information can be obtained as to aggregation of rare species and treatment of single stands. However, the use of values on tolerance for toxicity is not recommended for future research. For the first time, the Revised Index of Ecological Continuity (RIEC) developed in the United Kingdom is used on German territory to assess forest areas using species lists of lichens. The calculation of the index makes it possible to assess a study area as valuable ancient forest. An advantage is to use a group of species which can be easily monitored in order to end up with reliable assessments instead of using other, generally more difficult to handle species groups such as beetles. The British New Index of Ecological Continuity (NIEC) is adapted for local situations. Both indices can be used in other parts of Germany but for serious optimal results there should be more comparable studies. The study area is subdued to many regulations: flora-fauna-habitat and special protected area “Wälder im südlichen Solling”, the order to manage it by Lower Saxony’s plan for sustainable ecological forest development “LÖWE”, and further legal regulations on nature conservation. On the one hand, rejuvenation of oak seems to be a problem in many parts of Central Europe, and on the other hand, solutions are offered from literature especially by use of megaherbivores. For these reasons, grazing in the study area should continue. At least the concept of “habitat trees” used by forest authorities should be reconsidered as well as the commonly used method for rejuvenation of trees which is considered to have negative effects on biodiversity. A future scenario which is oriented on the concept of “Pleistocene Re-Wilding” as it is discussed in America and Russia, should be considered not only for the immediate study area but for a large and modern area of woodland pasture.

The framework conditions surrounding agricultural production in Germany have changed dramatically due to the Renewable Energy Law (EEG) and a sustained increase in agricultural prices. The Common Agricultural Policy, substantially reformed in the Luxemburg Compromise, will be considered in the framework of the “Health Check”. Against this background, the regional developments anticipated in dairy production, beef cattle husbandry and agricultural land use by the year 2015 are analysed with the help of the regionalized agricultural sector model RAUMIS. Simulations on the adaptability of dairy production under different market conditions are carried out with regard to the expiration of the dairy quota regulation. The farming intensity on arable land is generally increasing due to the increase in agricultural prices, the elimination of set aside obligation and the promotion of renewable resource crops. The increasing competitiveness of cash crops is speeding the departure of dairy production from arable crop areas into competitive grassland regions. In contrast, milk production is either constant or reduced on less competitive grassland locations. Among the regions reducing production are, according to the model results, low mountain ranges with high levels of grassland, for example in the Black Forest, in the Schwäbisch Alp, in the Hessian Mountain area in parts of the Eifel and parts of the Hunsrück. In the course of the many decades of milk quota system, a significant milk production potential was deactivated which could play a large role when the quota regulations expire. Based on a calculated “milk equilibrium price” at which the quota amounts are exactly produced, a price increase of ten percent leads to a long term expansion of the milk produced by about six million tons. There is thus no reversal of the successive milk production reductions in the least competitive regions, not even through significantly higher direct payments distributed in the framework of the introduction of the “regional model” in grassland regions, since these are decoupled payments. Should this drop in milk production have negative consequences for other sectors, for example tourism, it is to question, whether specific measures should be developed for the affected regions.

The mountain areas of Austria and Switzerland are important locations for dairy farming. Owing to natural conditions, the milk in these areas is produced at a considerably higher cost. Nevertheless, structural change in the mountain areas of both countries proceeded at a lower pace than in the plain areas. Milk production in the mountain area of Austria was appreciably expanded. This paper presents a number of attempts to explain these regional shifts, analysing the competitiveness of the farms, as well as the alternatives outside of milk production in the mountain and plain areas of Austria and Switzerland. In addition, we investigate whether milk production in these regions is also capable of holding its ground under future conditions. The on-average lower opportunity costs for land and labour in mountain areas are largely responsible for the high perseverance of dairy farmers in these regions. Common to both countries, however, is the fact that the competitiveness of farms in mountain areas can only be guaranteed by high direct payments. The extent of these direct payments is appreciably higher in Switzerland than in Austria, owing to the expected alignment of Swiss and EU milk prices, and the higher wage level in Switzerland. The high national economic importance of mountain milk production with regard to tourism and decentralised settlement explains the broad social acceptance of these payments, which should be less affected by cutbacks than other agricultural subsidies.

In general, data and scientific information on farmers’ cooperatives are very rare in Switzerland. There is no official statistic that collects the number and types of existing cooperatives in Switzerland. In view of the little information interviews with experts and an internet search has additionally been conducted. Collective actions of farmers have a long tradition in Switzerland. The earliest forms of collective actions in agricultural can be traced back to the management of common land and forest areas in early Germanic times. Like in most other European countries, the cooperative movement emerged in the second half of the 19 th century in Switzerland and experienced a rapid diffusion. Due to the protectionistic agricultural policy and guaranteed prices and incomes after the Second World War, only few farmers put much effort in building up / developing further selfhelp structures. The recent policy changes provide a new basis for cooperative actions. However, new collective initiatives are to a lesser extent a selfhelp measure, but rather a business strategy to improve the competitiveness of individual farms. Nowadays, there are a wide range of different collective farmers’ marketing initiatives. The importance of these initiatives various greatly and depends highly on the commodity. They play for example a very dominant role in the milk, cereal and oilseed sector. In contrast to this, collective farmers’ marketing initiatives are less dominant in the meat, vegetable and fruit sector. In total, five different forms have been identified as the main ones in Switzerland. These are: independent producer cooperatives, united cooperatives / federations of producer cooperatives, producer pools, producer interest groups, regional marketing initiatives. Each form was described by a case example. From the Swiss perspective, the following key criteria seem to be appropriate for a classification of collective actions of farmers: actors involved in the initiative (are nonfarmers also members/shareholders/partners), degree of involvement/collectivity, relationship to other supply chain actors, aims and activities of the initiatives. Collective initiatives are particularly a suitable approach for the Swiss mountain area, which are characterised by their natural and cultural heritage. Since consumers are willing to pay higher prices for authentic quality food, such products produced by COFAMIs may successfully compete on the market against cheap products from agroindustrial companies. However, in order to increase the production of high quality food (organic products, PDG/PGI, etc.) in Switzerland, it would be necessary that more agricultural products are exported. Currently, there are two programmes which offer funds for specific collective actions. The future direct payment policy, however, could have a strong impact on the attractiveness of collective actions of farmers. If the production of food becomes economically less important than the provision of public goods and services, the necessity for collective action will rather be reduced.

Les auteurs mettent en œuvre trois méthodes de modélisation prospective appliquées à des données géoréférencées haute résolution portant sur l’occupation du sol en milieu montagnard méditerranéen : approche SIG, modèle linéaire généralisé et réseaux neuronaux. Une validation des modèles est entreprise par la prédiction de l’occupation du sol à la dernière date connue. Les résultats obtenus sont, dans le contexte de la dynamique spatio-temporelle de systèmes ouverts, encourageants et comparables. Les scores de prédiction correcte se situent autour de 73 %. L’analyse des résultats porte notamment sur la localisation géographique, les types d’occupation du sol concernés et les écarts à la réalité des résidus. Un croisement des trois modèles souligne le degré élevé de convergence et une relative similitude des résultats issus des deux approches statistiques comparées au modèle SIG supervisé. Des travaux en cours concernent la mise en œuvre des modèles sur d’autres sites et le repérage des points forts respectifs afin de développer un modèle intégré. The authors apply three methods of prospective modelling to high resolution georeferenced land cover data in a Mediterranean mountain area: GIS approach, generalized linear model and neural networks. Land cover prediction to the latest known date is used to validate the models. In the frame of spatial-temporal dynamics in open systems, results are encouraging and comparable. Correct prediction scores average around 73 %. The results analysis focuses on geographic location, land cover categories and parametric distance to reality of the residuals. Comparing the three models shows the high degree of convergence and a relative similitude of the results obtained by the two statistical approaches compared to the GIS supervised model. Further steps are the application of the models to other test areas and the identification of respective advantages to develop an integrated model.

The investigation on an alpine pasture was performed on 15 heifers of the breeds Fleckvieh and Friesians from different farms. Some physiological parameters and locomotor activities in dependence of breed, farm of origin and weather conditions were studied. Animals of one farm were pastured in spring, the animals of the other farm were brought directly from the barn to the mountain area. Physiological parameters were influenced by farm, but not by breed. The activities of GOT and CK increased in unprepared heifers only (due to the release from skeletal muscles) as did levels of free fatty acids and beta-hydroxybutyrate obviously due to adaptation-difficulties linked with energy-deficiency. Pre-pastured animals showed higher blood-urea concentrations, due to their ability to locate always fresh grass with high protein content. The breed influence on the daily number of steps and on the distance covered was statistically not significant. Animals already pastured in spring showed more movement than unprepared ones. Among weather conditions thunderstorm showed a striking increase in activity which resulted from the search for shelter. On rainy days without wind the animals showed least movement. Cloudy, dry weather as well as sunshine was associated with average activity. These reactions to meteorological conditions were manifested more clearly in prepared heifers. The other animals obviously had to learn first how to minimize untoward effects by suitable behaviour.

Leprosy had a great impact on everyday life during the Middle Ages, which is reflected in many works of art and also in some preserved buildings. Worldwide, leprosy is still an unsolved problem; this fact has led the World Health Organization to develop a specific strategy to fight the disease. For physicians in Europe, leprosy has lost its significance. In the archives of the Swiss Canton of Valais leprosy in the 20th century is documented by photographs and written records. It is deplorable to see how a young woman can become crippled, lose her eyesight and die within a couple of years. Probably a pocket of leprosy persisted since the Middle Ages in this remote mountain area. The limited contagiousness of the disease is astonishing, since only a few of the closest family members and inhabitants of the some house were infected, while others remained healthy. The social situation of these patients at the beginning of this century was pitiable. The federal laws on epidemics of 1886 did not mention leprosy, as no one seemed to believe in its existence in Switzerland. Even after the cases of leprosy in the Canton of Valais were revealed, the reaction of the political authorities was reserved. An engaged effort by the involved physicians was necessary to establish the appropriate hygienic measures. In the literature of the time there were regular reports of cases in people who emigrated from the endemic areas. Today, in Switzerland one case of leprosy is discovered per year; thus, leprosy is still a disease which physicians must cope with.