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This paper examines the relationship between property tax systems and housing affordability in European countries. The research contains not only theoretical section, but also empirical analysis. The statistical data used in research was extracted from Eurostat, OECD, and Tax Foundation. As housing affordability increasingly becomes a pressing issue in many European cities, understanding the role of property taxation in shaping affordability dynamics is crucial for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders. Addressing housing affordability challenges requires a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing housing costs, with property tax systems playing a pivotal role in shaping housing market dynamics. Through a comprehensive literature review, the paper explores existing research findings on the correlation between property taxation and housing affordability. Utilizing data from the Eurostat database, I conduct a comparative analysis of property tax collection statistics across Europe. It focuses on property tax revenues as percentage of total private stock. In assessing housing affordability, two key indicators were extracted from the Eurostat database: the housing cost overburden rate and housing costs as a proportion of disposable income. Housing costs encompass various expenses associated with dwelling occupancy, including utilities, maintenance, taxes, and insurance. The housing cost overburden rate measures the percentage of households where housing expenses exceed 40% of disposable income, providing insight into the burden of housing costs relative to income. Additionally, paper analyses the proportion of disposable income allocated to housing-related expenses, offering further insight into affordability trends. The findings contribute to understanding the impact of property tax systems on housing affordability in European countries. By evaluating the relationship between property taxation and housing costs, the strategies can be developed to mitigate housing affordability challenges and promote sustainable housing markets.

The aim of the article is to present the genesis and idea of the activity of educational farms, as well as their organisation and functioning in selected European countries (Poland, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, France). The desk research method was used in this study. Educational farms in different countries are connected by the area of their operation and the goals pursued. However, significant differences can be found in the official requirements for such entities, as well as in the ways and possibilities of cooperation between them within the organisations associating them, which results in significant heterogeneity of educational farms in individual countries. The presented research outcomes may be helpful in improving existing and creating new entities associating educational farms.

Starting from the fact that the rapid spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and the implementation of social distancing strategies have dramatically affected all aspects of human lives at global, national, and micro levels, this paper focuses on examining the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economic performance of selected European countries. To perceive and understand this impact, the authors applied a complex research methodology based on the combined application of suitable univariate and multivariate methods of statistical analysis. The classification of 40 European countries into different groups, in terms of the selected set of COVID-19 indicators in 2020, was performed through hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis, while statistical evaluation of the quality of the obtained solution of a non-hierarchical procedure, based on the k-means method, was implemented. The classification consists of four clusters of countries identified as the “optimal” clustering solution. The authors conducted the analysis and comparison of profiles of the formed clusters of countries in terms of their average GDP growth rates in 2020 using the statistical methods of descriptive analysis and hypothesis testing. This study reveals that a cluster of countries with a relatively “lower” severity of the COVID-19 health consequences recorded a higher average GDP growth rate compared to groups of countries that suffered more serious consequences and vice versa. The obtained results, which indicate the connection between the magnitude of the negative health and economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, can serve as additional support to policymakers in making decisions aimed at mitigating pandemic impacts and crisis management.

This study tests the hypothesis that aging affects risk sharing via capital markets, federal governments, and credit markets. We apply the decomposition method to both simulated and European country data. For the simulation, we consider a simple overlapping-generations model and generate data that theoretically fit the model. Empirically, we apply the variance decomposition method using data from Europe. We find some evidence that aging has a significant effect on consumption risk-sharing via the credit market channel, whereas the results for other channels are mixed. With moderate reservations, our empirical results for Europe are consistent with the results derived from the simulated data.

The aim of the article is to present the problem of reparations. The issue of reparations remains a controversial and explosive chapter in the history of Europe after World War 11. Whereas the larger victorious powers received some compensation in the years immediately after the war, the smaller European countries, as well as numerous victim groups, largely came away empty-handed. One of these countries is Poland, which to this day is calling for reparations to compensate for the plundering of its economy and for the victims of the massacres under the Nazi occupation. The article presents as a main problem the question, why to this day, the German elites have refused to pay reparations which take into account all victim groups and alt the countries once occupied by Germany. In this article, the author explores the context, the strategic options and the tactics behind the German elites' approach towards compensation - an approach which culminated in the issue of reparations being removed from the de facto peace treaty of 1990 (the 'Two Plus Four Treaty'). The paper is based on various research methods, especially on survey of diplomatic documents and some studies published in Poland and Germany on the subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to quantify the long run and short run relationship between debt and economic activity in Central, Eastern and Southeastern European countries. In order to investigate the impact of public debt on economic growth, the paper uses pooled mean group estimator (PMG) for the period between 2000 and 2011. A battery of panel unit root as well as panel cointegration tests is used prior to performing the dynamic panel analysis based on PMG estimator. According to the empirical results, in the long-run debt significantly influences the GDP growth having a negative sign as expected and pointing out that government gross debt lowers the GDP growth. In the short run, debt has statistically significant negative influence on the GDP growth as well, controlling for other determinants of growth (trade openness, total investment and industry value added). Designing policy frameworks that encourage export, promote industrial development and create better environment for long-term investment should foster sustainable growth. Therefore, we find that a credible fiscal consolidation strategy is needed combined with policies to promote lasting growth in order to reach debt-stabilizing levels.

The purpose of the current paper is to investigate the possible relationship between fiscal discipline and social capital in EU member states during the last economic crisis and recovery, along with the assessment of the initial welfare effects of fiscal stimulus measures. Preliminary results show that institutional trust and general trust as social capital indicators associate positively with the extent of fiscal stimulus, while governance indicators show negative correlations. However, the significance of these results is relatively low and the subject needs thus further investigation. Further, it appeared that fiscal stimulus had weak positive effect on short-term recovery of GDP and employment, but not on medium-term GDP growth potential.

The purpose of the current paper is to investigate empirically the effect of social capital on investments as a key production factor. Theoretically, investments are expected to be higher in societies where there is more social capital between economic agents. Based on the data from World Values Survey, ten components of social capital are considered as factors of investments. Although the regression results are rather mixed, it can be generalised that components related to trust and norms dominate as predictors of overall investment activity, while networks have some effect only for foreign investments. Additionally, it appeared that the relationship between social capital and investments is similar in democratic Western European countries and Central and Eastern European countries with communist background

Objective: Evaluation of differences in the selenium supply of cattle across Europe., Material and Methods: A total of 35,722 serum samples from cattle throughout Europe (unknown clinical status), which had been sent by veterinarians to the IDEXX Vet Med Lab Ludwigsburg, Germany between January 1st, 2006, and June 30th, 2013, were analyzed routinely for the selenium concentration using ICP-analysis., Results: The collective data of the selenium concentration in cattle serum display seasonal variations, with a lower concentration during summer when compared to the winter. In recent years, the selenium supply has decreased. The farm size, husbandry conditions, economic situation, soil selenium concentration and the countries' specific feeding together play a key role in the selenium supply of the herd. Hungary and the Scandinavian countries Sweden and Denmark show the best selenium supply in Europe. A very poor situation exists in France and Luxembourg (> 50% of the cattle samples are undersupplied)., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: An optimal selenium supply for cattle is very important; a trace element deficiency can cause negative health effects and impair herd performance. The selenium concentration varies considerably, depending upon feeding and husbandry conditions. Therefore, a serum selenium analysis in cattle is essential and should be performed annually.