Search

The article describes the development of Estonian research libraries in the last thirty years, especially in the 1990s. After Estonia gained independence, important steps were taken, such as the establishment of the Estonian Library Network Consortium (ELNET) and the modernization of library processes. There were also challenges such as transitioning to a market economy and addressing the Russian-speaking minority. International support played a crucial role in the modernization of libraries, including the introduction of computers and the digitization of collections. Collaboration with international organizations and libraries was crucial for the success of Estonian libraries. [Extracted from the article]

Bu çalışma, Kuzey Avrupa'nın eski halklarından olan Estonların geleneksel inançları ile Türkistan ve Sibirya kökenli Türk halk inançları arasındaki kültürel ve dini benzerlikleri incelemektedir. Estonların haldjas (koruyucu ruh), kurat (şeytan figürü), lumememm (kar adamı) ve kutsal korular anlamına gelen Nemus gibi doğa üstü varlıkları ve ritüelleri daha yakından anlaşılabilmesi için Türk halk inanışlarında yer alan benzer kavramlarla karşılaştırılarak Ural-Altay kültürel mirasına atıf yapılmaktadır. Çalışma, eski Eston toplumlarının ritüel pratikleri, kutsal mekânlar ve semboller gibi temel inanç unsurlarını tanıtırken bunların Altay Türklerinin inanışları ile ortak bir kültürel mirası paylaştıklarına da işaret etmektedir. Bu benzerliklerin tarihsel ve kültürel etkileşimin bir göstergesi olduğu öne sürülmektedir. Makalede ayrıca, Hıristiyanlık öncesi dönemde şekillenen ve nesiller boyunca aktarılan Eston inançlarının doğal çevre ve yer altı ruhlarına olan saygıyı içeren karakteri detaylandırılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, doğayı kutsal kabul eden Eston dünya görüşü ile doğa ruhları ve ata ruhlarına saygı, özellikle "Yeryüzü Dini" olarak bilinen modern Maausk Hareketi ile yeniden canlandırılmıştır. Estonların doğa merkezli dünya görüşü, iki topluluk arasında köprü işlevi gören Türklerin Ural-Altay halkları üzerindeki etkisinin de bir yansıması olabileceği düşünülmekte ve bu benzerliklerin ortaya konmasıyla çalışmanın, Türkoloji, etnoloji ve Dinler Tarihi alanlarına da katkı sunması hedeflenmektedir.

Estonia’s policy towards national minorities is considered one of the most restrictive in Europe, resulting in a differentiated status of persons living in the state and an unprecedented level of statelessness. This is due to the fact that after Estonia’s independence in 1991, the “zero option”, which guarantees citizenship to all residents of the state, was not introduced, but only to those who were Estonian citizens before the annexation of the state by the USSR and their descendants. The others had to go through a naturalisation process in order to obtain citizenship. The restrictive naturalisation law was intended to facilitate the process of social integration by forcing people to learn the Estonian language and culture. The aim of the research conducted in the article is to analyse the assumptions of Estonia’s policy towards the Russian-speaking minority after 1991. The article verifies the hypothesis that Estonia’s policy towards national minorities is not conducive to the integration of representatives of national minorities into the titular nation. This is due to the strict naturalisation requirements, the failure to include representatives of the Russian-speaking minority in the integration process from the outset, and Russia’s activities in the Baltic region. The article consists of three parts. The first presents the genesis of the Russian-speaking minority on the territory of present-day Estonia, the second analyses the functioning of the Russian-speaking minority in the light of the applicable law, while the third examines the state of integration of the Russian-speaking minority into Estonian society and its identification with the state. The analysis leads to the conclusion that it is difficult to make a clear assessment of Estonian policy on the integration of the Russian-speaking minority. On the one hand, a systematic increase in identification with the state can be observed, while on the other hand, significant disparities in integration have become apparent.

In this paper, we discuss bird bones from sixteen sites across Estonia, focusing on the Medieval and Early Modern Period (ca 1200â1800). Zooarchaeology, stable isotope analysis and Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectometry (ZooMS) are used to explore how the exploitation of birds has differed between sites of various functions and locations. The results demonstrate the ubiquity of the chicken as the most abundant avian species in most sites and periods under study. The goose and the duck were the second and third most common species identified in the assemblages. Species diversity was highest at castle sites, where the presence of different wild birds can be associated with higher social status; however, the use of several bird species is unlikely to be food-related. The most frequently discovered wild birds were the black grouse and the western capercaillie, which are also known to have been served at feasts. This paper presents the first comprehensive study of Estonian avian zooarchaeological material from various contexts, giving a better overview of the importance of birds to historical communities.

The material culture of the medieval and later foodways in Estonia was in a constant evolution, influenced by various changes in the local society as well as in the broader human environment. In this paper, we will broadly outline these changes through the development of the equipment used both for making and consuming food and liquids in the domestic sphere. Based on the surviving evidence, it is possible to note several processes, some bound with the cultural transfer from abroad, others connected with the political and economic situation in the area under discussion.

New stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic analyses from medieval and early modern sites across Estonia demonstrate systematic differences in the dietary habits of people from various locations and social groups. These results are compared with previously published isotopic data from similar contexts to identify the type and origin of dietary items, specifically in terms of aquatic resource consumption. Distinction between protein sources is, however, complicated by the high degree of isotopic variation among aquatic ecosystems and the fact that resources from multiple habitats were routinely exploited, resulting in a mixing of the isotopic signal. Nitrogen isotopic ratios display variations in the consumption of higher trophic level protein (such as fish), differentiating between rural, urban and elite individuals, as well as between males and females. Carbon isotopic ratios show a clear distinction between humans from coastal and inland sites, likely reflecting the importance of Baltic Sea fish to coastal communities. However, the exact quantification of aquatic resources into the diets of historic period people in the region needs further work.

The function of European Stone Age forager sites with several burials has been debated for decades. One little-known site of this kind is the 4thâ3rd millennium cal BC Tamula I (hereinafter Tamula) in south-eastern Estonia. Bringing together the results of archaeological and archaeothanatological analyses and departing from stable isotope based dietary reconstructions together with the idea of âyou are what you eatâ as a basis for forming a group identity, we discuss the function of Stone Age forager sites with more than one interment. Should these be considered cemeteries, meeting places or ordinary settlements? Bulk stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen isotope (δ15N) analysis of human skeletal remains from Tamula and a spatio-temporally close multiple burial at Veibri (5th millennium cal BC) demonstrate a significant consumption of freshwater resources. However, the stable isotope values from these two sites differ significantly, allowing a clear distinction between the two populations. Regarding these values not merely as a reflection of peoplesâ dietary preferences, but also as a reflection of their primary identities and an indication of local ecologies, we argue that the stable isotope data together with the fact that the late foragers were sedentary provides additional insights into the discussion on the structure of buried populations. These new isotope data together with archaeological records from Tamula, Veibri and the Stone Age complex Zvejnieki in Latvia suggest that at least three different types of burial places existed among the hunter-gatherer communities in the eastern Baltic region during the Stone Age. In the future, these preliminary results about the people forming a burial community could be further consolidated by the establishment of local baseline information and the application of stable isotope analysis of single amino acids.

The article treats the activities of Estonian exile publishers in the Soviet Union (1918–1937) and in the West (1944–1991), concentrating on the publications of translated literary works. The analysis includes the study of the motives for publishing literary translations and the functions these publications were supposed to fulfil in these two different contexts of production and reception. The publishing of Estonian-language literary works in the Soviet Union is studied in the framework of national and cultural policies of the 1920s and 1930s, which determined the development of minority publishing. The output of translated literature by Estonian-language publishers is compared with the all-union translation policy and its preferences in the selection of authors for translation. The treatment of the Estonian-language publishing in the West focuses on the activities of Andres Laur and his publishing house Orto that issued most of the literary translations. The translation publications by other publishers (Vaba Eesti, Eesti Kirjanike Kooperatiiv) represent alternative modes of selection, illustrating the variety of motives.

Estonia is often seen as a model student among the post-communist countries. Many renowned think tanks and organizations measuring the quality of democracy (e.g., Freedom House, Varieties of Democracy, Bertelsmann Foundation) often give Estonia the highest scores in the region. However, the seemingly spotless façade hides growing tensions and emergent contradictions. The current paper will focus on the two most worrisome trends that have become evident in recent years, if not even earlier: (1) the limited success in integrating the large Russian-speaking minority and (2) the rise of the populist radical right. The failure to integrate the ethnic minorities would increase frustration and political alienation among Russian speakers, making it more difficult to build a healthy, cohesive democratic community. However, the rise of the populist radical right, namely the remarkable electoral success of EKRE (Estonian Conservative People’s Party), has proven to be a bigger challenge because it demonstrates that many Estonians are deeply dissatisfied with how democracy works in their country. The article discusses whether it would be possible for dissatisfied Estonians and Russians to join forces to challenge the current liberal democratic model in Estonia. The analysis shows that even if the initial attempts have failed, one could not entirely rule out that prospect.

Copyright of Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Estonia is one of the fifteen states created as a result of the collapse of the Soviet Union, which introduced such effective reforms that it is now a highly developed, economically and socially Western democracy. Currently, Estonia is at the forefront of post-Soviet and former satellite countries in terms of freedom from corruption, democratization, the level of education, and building a digital society. The main aim of the article was to answer the question concerning the social, political, and economic effects of reforms implemented in Estonia after the country became independent from Moscow. By comparing relevant indicators, the implications of these reforms were presented against the background of other former Soviet republics and Central and Eastern European states. The article also presents the historical determinants of the proWestern orientation of Estonia and its inhabitants. Without social support for integration with Western Europe, it would be impossible to carry out a successful transformation. Among the historical factors, the centuries-old influence of Western European, especially German, culture and economy had the greatest impact on the manner and quality of the reforms carried out in Estonia. The research shows that Estonia is the least affected by corruption and the most democratic country in the post- Soviet area. However, in terms of the quality of education, the country ranks first not only in the group of post-Soviet countries, but also in the whole of Europe. On the other hand, in terms of building the information society and e-state, Estonia is a world leader and is presented as an example to other countries.

L’article explica i aborda el significat, el contingut i els beneficis de la governança electrònica, utilitzant l’exemple d’Estònia. La governança electrònica no ha de ser complexa legalment, però cal entendre i analitzar les implicacions de les noves tecnologies. A Estònia, totes les bases de dades públiques estan connectades, proporcionant la possibilitat d’aportar dades una única vegada (once-only principle). Els individus tenen fàcilment una visió de conjunt de les seves dades i de com s’utilitzen. Els serveis digitals estan centrats en les persones i són accessibles mitjançant targetes d’identificació i codis a l’abast de tota la ciutadania i els residents. Explicar l’exemple estonià i les seves implicacions legals pot servir d’inspiració a altres països.

Copyright of SIRIUS - Zeitschrift fur Strategische Analysen is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In connection with the construction of one of the first practical dialysis machines, medical historians emphasize the work of the Swedish physician Nils Alwall. Together with his colleagues, he developed a device in the 1940s that could implement the combination of dialysis and ultrafiltration with membranes (cellophane tubes). Little known is the involvement of the physicians Lembit Norviit from Estonia and Adolfs Martins Steins from Latvia, both coauthors of the influential research article Clinical extracorporeal dialysis of blood with artificial kidney that was published in The Lancet in 1948 and the transfer of knowledge between Estonian, Latvian and Swedish researchers., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The article covers the spread of the corona virus (COVID-19) and developments above all in Estonia but also in other countries (the European Union and other countries of the world). The objective of the article is to provide an overview of the spread of COVID-19 in Estonia and in other parts of the world, also to discuss the potential economic impact of this pandemic and further activities of economic policy for economic recovery and achievement of socio-economic security. The following research tasks were set for the achievement of this objective: to study the situation and development of COVID-19 morbidity in Estonia; to study the developments also in other countries on the background of the developments in Estonia; to assess/analyse and point out the potential damage/losses (the general picture); proceeding from the factors mentioned above, to present the most important socio-economic activities for the recovery of the national economy and ensuring socio-economic security.

This article explores the current situation for religious groups of Russian Old Believers in two Baltic states (Latvia and Estonia) and Romania. The article is devoted to the results of field research, which compares this minority in terms of language, religion, and ethnicity. The article addresses the transformation of the original identity of Old Believers and explains the origin and history of Old Believers in the three countries.

This article deals with the situation of religious groups of Russian old-believers in two Baltic states (Latvia and Estonia) and Romania. The article is devoted to the results of field research, which is based on a comparison of the minority in the three states in terms of language, religion and ethnicity. The article deals with the transformation of the original identity of old- believers and explains the origin and history of old-believers in three countries.

The article analyses debates on jazz after 1953 through the lens of Soviet national cultures. Within the context of Cultural Cold War and the limited opening of the country, the question of a unique Soviet Jazz quickly gained political relevance. Soviet Estonia, at the multinational empire's periphery, was often imagined as the "Soviet West" by contemporaries. The republic was home to a small but well-educated jazz scene that already developed during the time of the anti-western campaigns of the late 1940s. In the post-Stalin period, Party and cultural elites in Moscow and Leningrad increasingly struggled with a growing number of young jazz enthusiasts that aimed at establishing jazz as art music based on improvisation and influenced by the American model. In these debates on the establishment of a specifically Soviet Jazz, conservative and reform-minded members of the cultural elites envisioned Estonian jazz as an early role model for a number of reasons: Its members were not only highly qualified, but also willing to make traditional Estonian folklore a key element of jazz. What is more, the musicians kept close ties with the Estonian cultural institutions. The growing number of jazz festivals hosted in the Estonian Soviet Republic provided an important public space for the emerging young Soviet jazz culture. At the same time, many Estonian jazz musicians advocated a more critical approach towards improvisation than musicians from Moscow and Leningrad. Their discussions resembled arguments against American superficiality brought forward by party ideologists in the late 1940s. The article questions narratives of jazz as cultural resistance to political oppression, and argues that a focus on cultural transfer from behind the Iron Curtain is too narrow for explaining the genesis, heterogeneity and durability of late Soviet culture. Greater emphasis on the non-Russian peripheries as cradles of culture can provide us with more nuanced interpretations on the renewal of Soviet culture after Stalin' death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this article is to examine the role of the new Russian ruling power as it related to cultural policy in the Baltic provinces between the Great Northern War (1700-1721) and the Russian Revolution (1917), in order to engender a discussion about the Russian influence in Estonia's architectural history - its content and meaning - based on primary sources in the archives of Estonia, St Petersburg and Moscow. The historiography of this topic dates back nearly a century; as a neighbouring country and an important centre of political power and culture, the influence of St Petersburg as the main Russian metropolis has been always been taken into consideration and studied in the history of Estonian art history. The articles by Sergey Androsov and Georgy Smirnov that appear in this volume have provided the inspiration to try and re-examine the entire spectrum of Estonia's position between East and West, and to point out the main subjects in this new context and the relationship to the new geography of architecture in the Age of Enlightenment and the stylistic changes of the 19th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Baltic Journal of Art History is the property of University of Tartu Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The objective of the paper is to bring up again the important issue – the fact that the academic staff, researchers and support staff of universities have low salaries in Estonia and their work is not highly valued or appreciated in the society, and to assess the situation. Unless changes are made soon in this area, qualified persons will gradually move from universities and establishments of higher education to other areas/sectors of national economy (some of them probably also to other countries) and the quality, competitiveness and standards of teaching and research activities will decline. Development of the whole Estonian national economy would suffer. This is the opinion of both the heads of the universities and many practical experts of the economy who are familiar with the situation. The research tasks of the paper are: to identify and highlight positions on the problem of salaries in Estonian higher education; to present, study and assess salary levels in Estonia; to examine the positions of Estonian politicians in the issue of salaries; to draw conclusions. Instead of theoretical thoughts/positions and comparisons between them and their synthesis, the author of the paper above all relies on practical opinions and the required trends/changes arising from them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this article lies on a set of silver Biedermeier teaspoons from the mid-19th century, forged in the province of Estonia in the Russian Empire. They function as example to explore the potential of things as source for the history of northeastern Europe. In doing so, they promote a new research approach that aims at bringing things to a greater awareness in historical research. It is part of the larger ongoing material turn in the humanities. The report at hand presents results of „PriMus – Promovieren im Museum (PriMus – PhD in Museums)“, situated at Leuphana University Lüneburg, in collaboration with six museums of the Hamburg region. One of them is the East Prussian state museum with its Baltic German department in Lüneburg. The silver spoons are a part of the manifold MünnichNolcken collection, which the museum acquired in 2014 from descendants of the former Baltic German noble family Baron Nolcken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides an overview of marriage and how it was regulated in Estonia and Livonia during the 18th century. An introduction to the social and historical background of Estonian peasant life is given as an aid to understanding these regulations and the way they were applied. A notable aspect here is the fact that in the 18th century Estonia and Livonia were among the regions in Europe in which serfdom was the most advanced. The Estonian peasant was a serf who belonged to the landlord through the land in which his family’s household was located. The topic of marriage and issues connected with marriage are presented chronologically, following the life span of the couple. The overview starts with the issues that are related to their life before marriage (how young people got to know each other in a village), and ends with the questions of possible divorce. During the 18th century the Swedish Church Law (1686) was of key importance in the jurisdiction of the territory of Estonia and Livonia. Therefore, almost every section describes how the issue under consideration (betrothal, wedding, sexual relationship outside marriage, widowing etc.) was regulated under Swedish Church Law. However, as this legislation was not always in accordance with local habits and customs, information on local regulations and the actual practices among the peasants is also included. There are many descriptions of wooing and weddings among Estonian peasants in the publications of 18th century authors, and a selection of these texts has been used in this article. It becomes obvious from these descriptions and contemporary discussions that for a peasant man and woman in the 18th century wooing was more important than betrothal, and rural marriage more important than a wedding in a church. There was a gap between the Lutheran teachings and state regulations that were conveyed in the churches and the everyday behaviour of a pre-modern peasant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Im Mittelpunkt dieses Artikels stehen die städtebauliche Vereinigung Ivangorods mit Narva und die daraus resultierenden Ressentiments zwischen den deutschen Kaufleuten und der russischen Bevölkerung Ivangorods. Die zähe Umsiedlung wird dabei gegenläufig im Sinne des städtisch-merkantilen Wettbewerbs analysiert und in den Kontext der städtebaulichen Erweiterung eingebunden. Im Betrachtungzeitraum von 1617 bis 1657 werden auch die Diskussionen über eine urbane Integration der russischen Bevölkerung in Narva diskutiert. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ethnic political mobilizations, which were originally led by the non-titular nations of the Soviet republics, traced different paths at their latter phase, after the collapse of the USSR in particular; the emerging of de facto independent states inside de jure newly-established states (Moldova and Georgia), the political reconciliation by forming autonomy (Moldova and Ukraine), the uprising of the inter-state war (Azerbaijan and Armenia), and the ethnic tension toward improvement of minority rights (Lithuania and Estonia). The four casestudies presented in this paper demonstrate that rich material and immaterial resources increased the sustainability of ethnic political mobilization. The sustainability was an important factor in achieving de facto independent states after the collapse of the Soviet Union. This paper emphasizes that these material and immaterial resources were not valid for the mobilization until the appearance of political opportunity and political will for collective action by social political organizations. The political mobilization in Transnistria not had only rich resources, but strong political will among associates toward regional independence. The political actors discovered the resources, supplied the resources to the participants of collective action, motivated them toward political activity and increased the potentiality of immaterial resources.

This article addresses the early photography in the territory of present-day Estonia. Numerous images survive from the 19th century, but their content and precise number have not previously been analysed. With the digitisation of this material in the past few years, it has become possible to achieve an overview of what was photographed in Estonia during those early decades. In the 1840s, the first photographers came to Estonia, but from this period there are no images that are certain to have come from the region. In the 1850s several photographers established studios in Reval and Dorpat and were active there for a number of decades. Yet only portraits and group photos survive from this period. Thus far, there are no known city or street views from Estonia that can be definitively dated to the 1850s. In the few shots, moreover, which likely come from this time, neither people nor concrete events are depicted. A notable change in the sphere of photography emerged relatively late in Estonia, during the 1860s, when photographing city and street scenes became popular. From this point on societal events as well as the life of the rural populations were captured in images. In the 1870s photography became technologically advanced enough that all spheres of life could be documented, but in daily practice, it was mostly traditional portraits and group photos as well as city scenes that were taken. In the 1890s, although the practice of photography had become widespread in Estonia, photographs of single events or of poverty and social problems were still rather rare. Although the precise number of extant images taken in Estonia during the 19th century cannot be determined, hundreds of thousands of them have survived to the present day. Almost 80 per cent of these are portraits or group photos, and only about 10 per cent are city or street scenes. The remaining ten per cent include both photos of specific events and those taken for a variety of other reasons. The surviving images can elicit various insights and understandings in the areas of material and intellectual culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the interwar period there were widespread discussions about national betrayal and national traitors in the Estonian press. It seems that Estonians, who were for the first time the ruling majority in their own country, still viewed themselves as a minority, and this was accompanied by the discussions about national betrayal. This paper analyzes these discussions in Estonian newspapers. The topic of national betrayal was closely connected with the use of the metaphorical term „juniper Germans” to describe people who were presumed to be Estonians but behaved like Germans and who were therefore seen as national renegades. Hence, this paper focuses on the contexts in which this term was used and the patterns of, and reasons behind, its use. Firstly, it emerged that, on the one hand, the usage of the term „juniper German” was indistinct and did not form an integral concept but on the other hand. the same clich'es and topics were used year after year. After the coup d''etat by Konstantin Päts in 1934 the rhetoric regarding „juniper Germans” became notably more intense as a result of the coup. Päts' authoritarian regime and also political parties before this time used this term in their political rhetoric to label their opponents. Secondly, journalists used the term constantly and widely in connection with school and church topics. In both cases, the argumentation reflected the opinion that the danger of „Germanization” still endured as long as there were Estonian children attending German schools or German pastors serving in Estonian parishes. Thirdly, the national betrayal rhetoric increased remarkably in 1939 in connection with the resettlement of Baltic Germans. In the press there was outrage when a number of people who were presumed to be Estonians (among them some public figures) also left the country. In general, one may say that the approach described above is, on the one hand, understandable since, firstly, „Germanization” was indeed a widespread means of achieving social mobility in the 19th century and secondly, the local German minority was not a minority on a European scale. On the other hand, the widespread use of the term „juniper German” indicates that this was a straw man argument constructed so as to have something to fight against. Contrary to the impression given by the Estonian newspapers, the phenomenon described by the term „juniper Germans” was not an extensive problem in Estonian society. In addition, one must keep in mind that specific persons of mixed origins or mixed identity were often also subject to sharp criticism. Thus, the press created a social atmosphere which presumably did not make the lives of such people easier. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estonia is widely regarded as a paramount example for a successful transformation of a socialist economic system to a functioning market economy. Against the backdrop of this positive image which contrasts strongly with the crisis scenarios in Southern Europe the remaining problems of Estonia are often ignored. Estonia has hardly succeeded in catching-up economically with the richer countries of the EU. In this paper the authors raise the question why the catching-up process of Estonia is not as successful as it could have been expected from the policy performance during the last decades. It turns out that Estonia faces a serious productivity problem, particularly in the manufacturing sector producing tradable goods which is normally the driving engine behind economic and technological catching-up. The Estonian economy has failed to undergo the necessary structural change towards technologically more advanced employment structures and export patterns. Accordingly, Estonian economic policy needs to create a suitable business environment to support this kind of structural change.

This paper studies the role of human capital in gender wage disparities. Despite increasing convergence of male and female human capital attainments, substantial differences remain. We focus on the human capital dimensions specific for a certain gender as additional drivers of the pay differential. Relying on PIAAC (the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies) data, we incorporate both formal educational attainment and actual cognitive skills in the definition of human capital. The results showed that the association between higher skill and formal education is particularly low for Estonian men, whereas wage returns for these skills are remarkably high in Estonia, compared to other Nordic states. It suggests that factors other than formal education play a substantial role in human capital accumulation in the case of Estonian males but not so remarkable in the case of Nordic countries.

The authors discuss whether a small country with shrinking population should apply public enterprises to improve its economic situation for purposes of external economic relations policy. The study refers to Estonia as an example. Estonia has developed public enterprises of the central state and of the municipalities since the reestablishment of the Estonian Republic. As public enterprise use private forms of law, some management problems occur because public firms are legally obliged to practice the management by objectives. The operationalization of welfare maximisation or achievement of sustainability of society to formulate goals for public enterprises was yet not successful. However, public firms should increase income, avoid monopoly positions of private firms, provide special public services, and should realize public goals. The activities of Estonian public enterprises and their goals show that Estonian enterprises can be used as instruments for foreign trade. The authors formulate a simple two-country model comprising a small and a big country. They introduce a public interest function referring to production, demand and employment, which allows the authors to argue that under conditions of shrinking population, the small country’s public interests, becomes reduced. They show that employing public enterprises diminishes negative effects on public interests. Even some types of inefficient public firms may lead to improvements.

The article examines the exiled Estonian politicians in the European Movement in the early Cold War period. The ultimate goal of exiled Estonians was to restore their state’s independence. In order to promote this, Estonian leaders sought connections with Western leaders. The European Movement was the only organisation involving actors from both the East and the West, and this corresponded to the Estonian discourse on Europe as a whole. Therefore, the European Movement was appreciated, although its limited opportunities for decisive actions were also recognised. East and West European interest in the European Movement declined as West European integration rapidly intensified through the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and particularly after the January 1952 Eastern European Conference in London. By 1957, disappointment in the inability of European unification to help regain Estonian independence became evident.

Germany’s low-key approach towards Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania gave way to the suspicion that unified Germany had chosen to prioritise a Russia-oriented realpolitik over its traditional policy based on ethical norms. The following article rejects this interpretation. The underlying reason for Germany’s constant aloofness towards the Baltic states was its plan to create a peaceful and integrated post-Cold War Europe that led the German government into a predicament: Its role as an EU-integration deepener proofed to be incompatible with its role as an advocate of the eastern-enlargement of the EU. Further-more, its commitment towards a broad and functioning co-operation with Russia was opposed by the CEE-states. As a result, German politicians decided to adjourn EU- and NATO-enlargement and to reduce the number of applicants. For that reason Germany abstained from advocating the Baltic states’ integration into the Euro-Atlantic organisations.

Regions are increasingly competing indirectly because of the increasing mobility of populations. According to OECD (2005) figures, interregional commuting rates are high. Intraregional commuting rates are even higher and steadily increasing. Commuting has a significant influence on the income of municipal populations and so also tax revenues of local governments in Estonia, but this phenomenon has not yet been deeply studied. This paper aims to study the scope of commuting and the resulting effects relating to personal income tax on municipal budget revenues in Estonia, on the basis of data from the Estonian Tax and Custom Board. Based on the findings, it can be said that commuting is a very important factor in municipal development, as net income from commuting accounts for up to 80% of local government revenues from personal income tax.

In many countries occur problems from unfunded mandates related to a shift of a function by an upper tier of government to lower rank governments without providing the lower one with financial means to perform these functions. The authors define the unfunded mandates and clarify how they relate to functions, uncovered costs and financial means of municipalities. Then they discuss the connexity principle in order to avoid unfunded mandates and respective functions variations in crises to avoid unfunded mandates. They point to conflicts which stem from allocation, stabilization and distribution activities. In Estonia the development of revenues and expenditures of central and local governments reflect tendencies to cause unfunded mandates especially in the period of crisis from 2009 to 2011. To fight unfunded mandates the connexity principle should be applied for municipal performance of central state functions and compulsory municipal functions. The central and local government finances should vary according to the principle of parallelism. If the total tax revenues vary the changes of block grants have to be parallel to the disposable incomes of the tiers of government.

Unlike the first resettlement (Umsiedlung) of Baltic Germans that took place in Estonia from autumn of 1939 to spring of 1940, the operation known as Nachumsiedlung (later resettlement) was carried out in early 1941 under the conditions of Soviet occupation and in a manner that was concealed from the public. The purpose of this article is on the one hand to show how the interests and attitudes of Germany and the Soviet Union influenced the preparation and the execution of the Nachumsiedlung and how the resettlers were dealt with in Germany. On the other hand the article will enlighten the motives and controversial identity of resettlers. The motivation of the German authorities for initiating the Nachumsiedlung can be explained by the addition of potential human resources and material benefit, but the reason for the quick endorsement by the Soviet side remains unclear. Later activities of the Soviets demonstrate their desire to complicate the Nachumsiedlung as much as possible. Joint commissions composed of representatives of the German and Soviet sides were formed for carrying out the Nachumsiedlung. Regular reports submitted by German representatives reflect numerous incidents indicative of the arbitrariness, incompetence and malevolence of Soviet officials. However, due to the fear of Soviet repressions, in addition to the ones from Germans, numerous Estonians and other persons of non-German origin were registered as late resettlers with the assistance of officials from the German side. Many of the resettlers were from mixed families or persons with German origins, who had been assimilated into Estonians during the interwar era. This could also be the reason why they had not taken part in the first resettlement in 1939/40. In Germany, resettlers were divided according to their origins and political credibility. Non-Germans and also many resettlers with German origin were treated as refugees who were placed into refugee camps upon their arrival in Germany. After the outbreak of war between Germany and the Soviet Union, several Estonians who had claimed to be Germans expressed the wish to return to their homeland. Returning to the Baltic countries, however, was made complicated in the latter half of 1941 and essentially, it was mostly possible only for persons in the service of the occupying power. Resettlers with non-German origins often got stuck in Germany’s bureaucratic machinery, neither welcome in Germany, nor with the opportunity to return to their homeland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]