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In a project funded by the German state of Lower Saxony, macro- and microscopic analyses, X-ray examinations, 3D computed tomography and metal analyses (trace element analyses and lead isotope analyses) were carried out on Early Bronze swords from Lower Saxony. The evaluation provides some new insights, including the discovery of an exceptional ornamental technique involving inserted bolts on the pommels of two Nordic full-hilted swords. Furthermore, the investigations confirm the theory that Nordic full-hilted swords and Southern Central European octagonal hilted swords were produced by craftsmen of different traditions. Remarkably, Nordic full-hilted swords bear evidence of a limited adaptation of casting and mounting techniques of Southern Central European origin. This sheds light on complex relations and a selective technology transfer between these two different craft traditions. In addition, it can be shown that some craft traditions of the Early Bronze metal-hilted daggers live on in some full-hilted swords of later times. The octagonal hilted swords were probably produced in several small workshops. The long-postulated workshop trading areas of Nordic full-hilted swords could unfortunately not be reassessed according to technological criteria because of the scarce data available. The distribution of octagonal hilted swords in the north may be explained by the import of swords with 'southern' ornamentation and other non-decorated swords which were finished in the north. This led to reciprocal contact and influences. Besides their primary function as a weapon, the swords would certainly also have carried social and symbolic meanings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

For decades projection radiography has been the standard in the diagnostics of fractures and injuries, including patients in childhood and adolescent; however, each examination with X‑rays should also be based on an individual assessment of the benefits and risks. The pediatric traumatology section of the DGU has developed a consensus paper on various aspects of imaging for diagnostics and assessment of progression, on setting options for intraoperative imaging, on X‑ray imaging of the opposite side, on polytrauma and computed tomography (CT), on postoperative radiological checks and the use of sonography after an accident.

Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Background: The structured diagnosis of chest radiographs is an important basic competence in radiology and will be required in the student teaching with the implementation of the National Competency-Based Learning Catalog Medicine (NKLM) in Germany., Aim: The aim was to evaluate the extent to which second-year students gain confidence in the diagnosis of chest radiographs through a new curricular training for the diagnosis of chest radiographs with subsequent objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) and how confident they feel about meeting the expectations of the supervising medical colleagues during the clinical clerkship., Methods: The training included four lectures and ten commented instructional films on the diagnosis of radiographs. Two years later, the students were asked how often and in what form they had contact with chest radiographs in their clinical clerkship. They were also asked how confident they felt in dealing in different areas. The students with training were also asked to what extent the lectures and the instructional films were helpful. The results of students in the last year without and the first year with training and OSCE were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples., Results: The frequency of dealing with chest radiographs was comparably high among students with and without training. The students with training and OSCE felt more confident and better prepared in dealing with chest radiographs than the students without training (varying between p < 0.001 and p = 0.148). They rated the educational films as more helpful than the lectures (mean 2.85 ± 0.76 vs. 3.41 ± 0.68 on a four-point scale)., Discussion: With early training, students' confidence in dealing with chest radiographs can be sustainably increased.

Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Orthopedic and especially trauma surgeons' use of x-rays during operations vary extensively, especially in minimally invasive osteosynthesis procedures. Radiation hazards often are neglected. In this paper, a short overview of physical and biological effects of radiation are given. In addition, practical information about how to lower radiation exposure in the daily work in the operating room (OR) is given. The operating team is exposed mainly to scattered radiation. The radiation exposure is 10 times higher on the tube side than on the amplifier side. The distance between tube and surgeon must be as great as possible. The tube should be positioned under the OR table, and the distance between tube and patient should be as short as possible. The positioning of the C-arm device without radiation is important. The use of patient landmarks is used to position the C-arm over the region of interest, but the preoperative training of surgeons and team with virtual learning tools, e.g., virtX, is very effective in reducing radiation hazards.

Due to the fact that Röntgen never reported the details of the discovery of his "new rays", he left the door open for speculative interpretations. As a contribution to a serious analysis of the history of Röntgen's discovery, this paper presents a previously unnoticed letter relating to an order of a number of very thin crystalline absorbers. The addressee is unfortunately unknown. The letter is dated November 15, 1895. Therefore, this letter must be considered to be the first well documented remark made by Röntgen after seeing the earliest indications of the new rays only one week earlier. The order seems to emphasize the role of a particular type of cathode ray tube developed by Philipp Lenard, Nobel Prize winner of 1905, and manufactured by the glassblower Louis Müller-Unkel in the discovery of the new radiation. It partly contradicts an analysis based on Röntgen's order book from Würzburg made by the author et al. some years ago. Completed by the document presented here, Röntgen's order correspondence allows some insight into Röntgen's intentions during this productive period. The autograph was found at Staatsbibliothek Berlin, Sammlung Darmstaedter, by the author., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

In 2001 or 2002, the legislator made substantial alterations to the "Röntgenverordnung" [regulations governing use of roentgen ray radiation] and "Strahlenschutzverordnung" [regulations governing radiation protection]. This was done to bring German law in line with EU Directives 96/29/Euratom (basic safety standards for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionizing radiation) and 97/43/Euratom (health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure). Proper use of radiation in medicine requires that those involved in its application are aware of the biological effects of radiation. When staff and others are protected good organization and appropriate technology at the workplace can achieve a great deal. In the new directives, the radiation protection for the patient is quantified and the responsibility of the physician is clearly pointed out. The most important aim is uniform quality throughout Europe in radiological diagnosis and radiation protection.