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Dėl nepatikimos informacijos Daivos Šveikauskienės straipsnyje „Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos informacinė sistema: I morfologija“, publikuotame elektroniniame žurnale Lietuvių kalba 2016 m. nr. 10.

Straipsnyje aptariama modelio negyvas subjektas + aktyvų veiksmą reiškiantis veiksmažodis realiza­cija lingvistiniuose straipsniuose anglų kalba. Nustatomas bendras modelio dažnumas bei dažniausiai pasikartojantys veiksmažodžiai bei subjektai, atskleidžiama jų reikšmė ir funkcijos. Rezultatai lygina­mi su lingvisto Master’io (2001) straipsnyje aprašomais tyrimo, grindžiamo moksliniais straipsniais tiksliųjų mokslų tematika, rezultatais. Abiejų tyrimų metu nustatyta, kad tiriamas modelis vyrauja aiškinamojo tipo kontekstuose.Kvantitatyvinis aspektas papildomas interpretaciniu, pasitelkiant konceptualiosios metaforos teo­riją. Nustatytos šios dažniausiai pasitaikančios metaforos: tyrimas yra žmogus, tyrimas yra kelionė, tyrimas yra statinys, tyrimas yra ekonominė veikla bei tyrimas yra paslapties atskleidimas. Pirmoji metafora iš dalies sutampa su metonimijomis.Šio tyrimo rezultatai galėtų pasitarnauti diskurso analizės tyrimams bei dėstant akademinį rašymą negimtakalbiams.

Šiame straipsnyje, remiantis pavyzdžiais, surinktais iš Anglų filologijos katedros studentų bakalaurinių ir magistrinių darbų, analizuojami tų darbų pavadinimai bei mokslinio darbo plano rašymo būdai. Pavadinimai nagrinėjami keliais aspektais – visų pirma, aptariama jų funkcijos, 153tiriama jų sintaksinės ir struktūrinės ypatybės. Be to, nemaža dėmesio skiriama sąšvelnių (hedging) ir intertekstualumo naudojimui mokslinių darbų pavadinimuose, t.p. paminimi nauji efektingi būdai kurti pavadinimus. Kita straipsnio dalis skirta aptarti problemoms, kylančioms rašant mokslinio dar­bo planą. Išskiriami dviejų tipų sunkumai – susiję su darbo turiniu, kai planas yra per daug bendras ir neatspindi darbo turinio, ir sunkumai, susiję su plano forma – kai nesilaikoma tos pačios sintaksinės formos. Išvadose teigiama, jog šios dvi įvadinės mokslinio darbo dalys, nors iš pirmo žvilgsnio ir galinčios atrodyti nelabai svarbios, iš tiesų atlieka rimtą informacinę bei reklaminę funkciją, todėl siūlant akademinio rašymo kursą, joms reikėtų skirti nemaža dėmesio.

The present paper sets out to examine the efficiency of the Task Dependency Principle (TDP) in teaching research paper writing for BA students in English Philology. So far the TDP has been used in teaching practical language skills to non-native speakers. It consists in giving students tasks which are based on previously accomplished tasks. The TDP has turned out to be very effective in teaching research paper writing skills as well. Implemented throughout one full semester of the research-in-progress seminar, coupled with the peer review and fostered by the focus on individually selected linguistic topics, the TDP has contributed to increasing the motivation of students and shifting from teacherto student-centred teaching/learning.

The paper aims to review the history of dialectology at Vilnius University since the establishment of the Department of the Lithuanian Language in 1940. To achieve this, we have set the following objectives: 1) to present the teaching of dialectology, 2) to review the dialect material collection, and 3) to examine existing research. Descriptive, analytical, and evaluative methods are applied in the study. The beginning of dialectological research is associated with the name of Antanas Salys. The works of Aleksas Girdenis and Zigmas Zinkevičius are also discussed in the paper, as well as the teaching of the dialectology subject, methods of collecting dialectological material and directions of dialectological research. The paper distinguishes the paradigms of traditional, structural, and new dialectology dialectology, and examines their methodological similarities and differences. The most important conclusions and summaries of the paper are fundamentally related to dialectological paradigms: in more than eighty years since the first dialectology subject taught at Vilnius University, the understanding of dialectology has changed. The stage of traditional dialectology at the University was extremely important, as it produced the most fundamental works that are still used today. The structural dialectology paradigm and Prof. Girdenis Dialectology School that trained a large group of productively working Lithuanian dialectologists has flourished over the years. Currently, the new paradigm of dialectology is making its way, offering new theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of dialects.

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Copyright of Linguistics: Germanic & Romance Studies / Kalbotyra: Romanu ir Germanu Studijos is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Linguistics: Germanic & Romance Studies / Kalbotyra: Romanu ir Germanu Studijos is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Linguistics: Germanic & Romance Studies / Kalbotyra: Romanu ir Germanu Studijos is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper aims to examine the meeting points between phraseology and humor research, focusing on the role and the functions of fixed phrases in humor discourse. The examples to illustrate certain aspects of usage of fixed phrases for joke purposes are taken mainly from social media such as Facebook and Twitter and include jokes in English, German, Lithuanian, Russian, and Polish. In the course of the investigation, a distinction ought to be made between set phrases (idioms in the narrower sense of the term, proverbs, catch phrases etc.) and fixed phrases in general. Set phrases (phrasemes) have an "added value" regarding their meaning - be it a figurative element, be it ready-made reasoning or behavioral models in short form in the case of adages. In humor discourse idioms - and proverbs - are used mainly for wordplay, in which both the literal and the idiomatic meaning are activated. The wordplay can happen also in verse form. Adages can be transformed or twisted resulting in new parodistic or funny sayings. Fixed phrases outside of the phraseology can be separated into two groups: phrases typical for a particular discourse type and joke frame related phrases. The former, as means to evoke a certain frame, are used in parodistic jokes (e.g., the phrase ladies if he evokes the dating tips frame). The latter constitute a distinct class of fixed phrases which can be found only in the humor discourse: these phrases act as joke formulae und provide a basis for bigger or smaller joke categories. Certain phrases in this group, such as checks notes or nothing like deserve a mention as irony markers with a distinctive evaluative character. The shared feature of all these idiomatic and non-idiomatic phrases is that they are well-known, re-occur in the language and, in that respect, can considered belonging to the sphere of interests of phraseology. Regarding the main functions of fixed phrases in the humor discourse, they can contribute to the social play, provide the cues to switch to a nonserious humor mindset or express evaluation - from mild mockery to aggressive ridicule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the analysis of the texts collected in the 1930s in Latvia and Estonia, this paper provides a description of the semantics of the verbal modifiers, i.e., prefixes (preverbs) and particles, in Latvian Romani. The system of verbal modifiers in Latvian Romani is an innovation evolved under Slavic and Baltic influence. Most preverbs are instances of MAT-borrowing from Slavic and Baltic, whereas verb particles are a PATborrowing, modelled after the Latvian system. The paper argues that even preverbs of Slavic origin often copy the semantics and derivational patterns of Latvian prefixed verbs. It is also shown that, differently from Latvian, in Romani both preverbs and verb particles can affect the verb’s argument structure (e.g., by making it transitive) and change its aspectual value (e.g., by making it perfective). Finally, the distribution of verbal modifiers in Latvian Romani (the development of verb particles as opposed to other closely related Northeastern Romani dialects which only have prefixes, and higher frequency of verb particles in Estonia than in Latvia) confirms the areal cline in the spread of verb particles.

Copyright of Vilnius University Open Series is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Linguistics: Germanic & Romance Studies / Kalbotyra: Romanu ir Germanu Studijos is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper addresses the issue of polysemy, and more precisely of multiple meanings in the case of the words francophonie/francophone from the perspective of argumentative semantics. The aim of the paper is to examine the mechanisms that account for the multiple meanings of francophonie/francophone, i.e. the semantic and discursive mechanisms involved in the (re)construction of lexical meaning as the words occur in discourse. The data analysed in this paper consists of a set of discourse fragments about francophone identity, discourses that vary according to the speaker, the geographical location and the media support. The study is carried out within the framework of the SAP theory (Semantics of Argumentative Possibilities), following a procedure based on a pre-built reference meaning – i.e. a description of the argumentative potential of the lexeme – that will be used when analysing the discursive occurrences. First, the paper briefly presents the SAP theory and the pre-built reference meaning of the lexemes francophonie/francophone (described in terms of core-elements, stereotypes and argumentative possibilities). It then illustrates several discursive mechanisms of meaning construction. The analysis highlights a series of meaning construction mechanisms: transgressive activation of the argumentative potential, reconfiguration by scission of the core-elements or by deletion of one of the elements, modality addition, transgressive reconstruction of the core meaning, and finally core circularity. Thus, the paper indicates, from the perspective of argumentative semantics, that the multiple meanings of the words francophonie/francophone, i.e. the various semantic configurations attached to these words, can be seen as reconfigurations of a single lexical meaning.

The aim of the article is to review the development of applied linguistics in Lithuania, analyse the general tendencies of the development of this science, and present the more prominent groups of researchers in applied linguistics, the schools that have been formed or are being formed, and the contribution of some researchers to the research of different branches of applied linguistics. The article focuses on the work started after the restoration of independence of the Republic of Lithuania in 1990, because only from that time onwards did the work of Lithuanian applied linguistics enter the international mainstream of this science. It discusses some of the research and practical work related to the research that helps or has helped in certain periods to solve problems related to language in life. First of all, the article introduces the works on teaching Lithuanian as a foreign language, which are connected with the beginning of applied linguistics in Lithuania, and which have laid the appropriate methodological foundations for the formation of communicative competence, for the development of a new type of textbooks, pedagogical grammars of the Lithuanian language, and for the creation of a system of assessment of competences. After discussing the origins of applied linguistics in Lithuania, the paper discusses the further development of this science. Research in the field of language acquisition, sociolinguistics, language attrition, cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, politeness and impoliteness, corpus and forensic linguistics, and other branches of applied linguistics is presented, and the real-life linguistic issues, analysed by Lithuanian researchers, are highlighted. The final section of the article describes the most important works of dissemination of applied linguistics and presents the research journal Taikomoji kalbotyra (“Applied Linguistics”), the international conferences on applied linguistics that have taken place in Lithuania, and the networks of researchers.

After the restoration of Lithuania’s independence in 1990, non-governmental organizations devoted to the linguistic education, the teaching of the Lithuanian language and its popularisation, and the rights of the state language, that had been active during the interwar period, began to be re-established. The most prominent of the organizations restored were the Lithuanian Language Society and the Union of Teachers of Lithuanian Language and Literature. During the years of the restored independence, various new organizations emerged whose aims and activities had more or less in common with those of the Lithuanian Language Society and the Union of Teachers of the Lithuanian Language and Literature. In 1990, the language popularisation periodical “Gimtoji kalba” [Mother Tongue], which had been established in Kaunas in 1933, was restored. The object of the analysis is the information about the activities of non-governmental language organizations published in the restored periodical. The main focus is on the Lithuanian Language Society, a non-governmental organization that was the editor (1935–1937 in Lithuania, 1958–1968 in the USA) and the publisher (1938–1941 and 1990–1996 in Lithuania) of the “Gimtoji kalba”. The aim of the paper is to highlight and summarise the changes in the goals of the Lithuanian Language Society, the development of its activities, and the search for new forms of activities, as reflected in the publications of “Gimtoji kalba”. Descriptive, analytical and summarizing methods were applied. The analysis of the publications in “Gimtoji kalba” shows that the restored Lithuanian Language Society, which at first based its activity on the experience of the interwar period and the language movement of 1968–1988, contributed to the development of the state language surveillance system. The development of the state language surveillance system has led to a change in the direction of the Society’s activities. While at the beginning of the restoration of independence the focus was on language correctness and its maintenance, over time the Lithuanian Language Society became increasingly oriented towards linguistic education of society and promotion of the Lithuanian language.

In the recent decades the interpersonal nature of written academic communication has been widely studied in various linguistic/cultural contexts, including Lithuanian. To gain new insights into how knowledge is negotiated interpersonally in Lithuanian scientific texts, the present paper explores the distribution and use of interactive and interactional features of metadiscourse in Lithuanian research articles in a single discipline, i.e., linguistics. For the classification of metadiscourse resources, the study employs the interpersonal model of metadiscourse (Hyland 2005a). Based on the analysis of 30 Lithuanian research articles in the field of linguistics, this exploratory investigation reveals rhetorical strategies utilized by professional authors to construct a coherent text and engage their audiences in the chosen disciplinary domain. The dominance of interactive metadiscourse features over interactional ones in the corpus examined shows that Lithuanian authors of research articles in linguistics are generally more concerned with organizing discourse and guiding readers through the text than with expressing attitudes and commitment to their arguments. The most common interactive resources are transitions and evidentials, and the most frequent interactional devices include boosters, engagement markers, and hedges. The analysis offers a number of methodological steps necessary for applying the interpersonal model of metadiscourse to Lithuanian data, and complements numerous investigations into Lithuanian academic discourse by illustrating and discussing the writer-reader interaction in linguistics in a larger corpus.

The comparison of light verb constructions with the verbs make and do has not received much attention. The present paper is an attempt to contribute to the study of these constructions. It aims to analyze the light verbs make and do in combination with the same deverbal nouns to identify similarities and differences between the two light verbs and examine the contribution of the light verbs and deverbal nouns to the light verb construction in terms of semantic and syntactic features. The research is corpus-based, and the data for analysis are collected from the British National Corpus (BNC). The semantic description deals with characteristics such as generality, polysemy and aspectual meaning, and the syntactic description focuses on complementation. The analysis of findings demonstrates that, despite some similarities, almost all constructions with the two light verbs show either meaning or/and complementation differences. The study also reveals that both light verbs and deverbal nouns have an impact on the semantics and syntax of the construction. Light verbs may affect light verb constructions semantically in terms of generality and polysemy, and the aspectual meaning of constructions depends on both light verbs and deverbal nouns. Likewise, both light verbs and deverbal nouns have an influence on complementation, but in their own way: light verbs on the selection of complements and deverbal nouns on complementation patterns.

This paper aims to reveal differences between the competing accusative and locative forms of Lithuanian temporal expressions denoting parts of the day (rytas ‘morning’, diena ‘day’, vakaras ‘evening’, naktis ‘night’). Since the accusative of time expresses a wider semantic spectrum, it was first necessary, using a prototypical approach, to define exactly what the morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics of the competing pairs are (i.e., prototypical verbal modifiers expressing location of an action/ state in time). Then, analysing the DLKT corpus data confirmed that the competition between the accusative and locative forms is present using the word vakaras ‘evening’ and rytas ‘morning’. This study reveals that the choice of case depends on the interaction of the given word with the (non)presence of an attribute and on the concrete type of attribute as well. It was confirmed that the accusatives of all the studied words predominate over the locatives, but the strength of the dominance varies. This may be caused by the different degree of adverbialization of the locative forms and by the different semantic implications embodied in the lexemes themselves, which is related to how successfully the locative resists the expansion of the accusative.

The paper expands on the problem of sustainability of dialecticity, i.e. the conditions and the potential of the dialect codes in the regions of Lithuania based on the data of the project “Distribution of Regional Variants and Quasistandard Language at the Beginning of the 21st Century: Perceptual Approach (Perceptual Categorisation of Variants)”. It aims to reveal whether and to what extent the narrative of an ordinary member of a language community allows to approach regional dialecticity via the dimension of (non)sustainability of dialecticity. The empirical basis for the analytical discourse developed in the paper was constructed from the data revealing the language attitudes of 910 young persons from 21 regional points (which in the etic narratives were estimated as includable into the zone of the already formed (or forming) variant on the basis of the traditional dialect), fixed by applying the instrumentarium worked out in perceptual dialectology (PD). Having generalised the data of language self-observation and acknowledgement of dialecticity in the micro-/macro-environment, it might be claimed that, in the region of Lowland dialecticity, the areas of the sustainable dialecticity dominate: here, no less than 2/3 of the community might be estimated as having the potential to choose and realise the dialect code. The PD research including the young Highland people, which was based on the comparative analysis of the data, concerning the application of the language behaviour of young people and their a priori attitudes toward the spread of the dialect code, led to the observation that the following ab intus estimations of the dialect codes have been constructed: I am more tolerant toward it; I show less attempt at self-identification. It should be stressed that, in the regions of Highland dialecticity, not merely the areas of the sustainable dialecticity have been fixed, where the communal members firmly positioned their identity as active (im)permanent representatives of the dialect code. The emic narratives reconstructed from the PD research data allowed to distinguish the areas of the relatively sustainable dialecticity, where only around 1/2 of communal members might be identified as the active (im)permanent representatives of the dialect code, and the areas of the unsustainable dialecticity where only 1/3 and less of the communal members were apt to recognise their dialect identification. The holistic estimation of both the Lowland and the Highland dialecticity, based on the reconstructed fragments of the emic narratives revealing the tendencies of code adjustment, led to the conclusion that Lowland dialecticity should be claimed as more sustainable. It should be maintained that the concluding remarks are based on the reconstruction of the emic narratives of the group of recipient participants who represent one age category. Therefore, to achieve a more accurate (non)sustainability discourse in dialectology, further steps are required, e.g. the PD research should include the recipients of various age groups; the results obtained in the PD analysis should be compared with the data of direct observation, etc.

The present paper reports on the English type nouns kind of and sort of and their Lithuanian correspondences in a contrastive perspective. This paper aims to describe the quantitative and qualitative distribution of the English kind of andsort of, to determine their translational correspondences in Lithuanian as well as to reveal how Lithuanian correspondences correlate with the functions (textual and interpersonal) that kind of and sort of perform in original and translated fiction texts. The research method is a quantitative and qualitative contrastive analysis based on data extracted from the self-compiled bidirectional corpus ParaCorpEN→LT→EN comprising fiction texts. The results show that kind of and sort of are prone to be used NP-internally; however, even in this construction they can feature as DMs. Kind of and sort of function as unambiguous DMs when they completely lose their nominality, i.e. are used NP-externally. The functional and semantic potential of the type nouns is fully reflected by their TCs. Very rarelykind of and sort of denoting a type are translated congruently into a Lithuanian type noun; they usually correspond to demonstrative pronouns. As discourse markers, kind of and sort of are realised by different Lithuanian correspondences which may help establish the common ground between the speaker and the hearer or refer to the previous context, may indicate epistemic imprecision, approximation or downtone a proposition. The high number of zero correspondence shows that the Lithuanian type nouns have not advanced on the grammaticalization path the way the English type nouns have and due to the multifunctionalilty, non-propositionality and context-dependence there is no one-to-one correspondence of the markers under scrutiny.

It is stated that children in their speech master directives at their earliest age and they use them the most frequently. However, it is currently unknown how these directives develop in the Lithuanian language and how their expression changes when a child grows up. This article investigates the change in the number and expression of directives during child’s raising, and what their differences emerge individually by comparing the speech of girls and boys. It is expected that the analysis conducted during the work will contribute to the studies of children’s pragmatic competence in Lithuania, i.e. to establish the most common characteristics typical to the directives used by children, by comparing the directives used by pre-school children at the beginning of the academic year and in its end in order to identify the differences and how children’s speech changes when more intensive formal education starts. The paper involves the gender dimension by expecting that differences in the language may be also envisaged between girls and boys. The object of this paper is directives used in spontaneous dialogues of pre-school children. The work material consists of 12 children’s dialogues, which have been transcribed and encoded morphologically by Software CHILDES (Child Language Data Exchange System). The following methods were applied during the work: 1) Cross-sectional (by sampling the subjects and gathering the work material); 2) Linguistic text corpora (by filing and analysing a child language text by Software CHILDES); 3) Comparative (by comparing: a) Data of the speech of girls and boys; b) Data of the speech of five-year-olds and six-year-olds). After summarising the results of this research, it might be stated that even pre-school children can use different forms of directive types. As it was expected, more difficult constructions and forms develop by experiencing more different situations, what is seen when the stages change (at the beginning and in the end of the study). The gender dimension highlighted in the study suggests that considerable differences were not identified, and most cases reported indicate more common charcteristics.

The paper aims to explore where and why an ordinary member of language community creates the dialecticity of a locality and evaluate whether (and how) the dialect artefact of an ordinary member of language community is related with the dialecticity recognised and estimated by researchers, or, in other words, discuss the interaction of the emic and etic perspectives. The empirical basis for the discussion about the interaction of the emic and etic perspectives is formed on the verbalised and visualised language attitudes of the ordinary members of language community and the data of the text-stimuli perceptions gathered during the project “The Position of Standard Language in the Mental Map of the Lithuanian Language” carried out in 2014–2016 and supplied with the data of the ongoing project “Distribution of Regional Variants and Quasistandard Language at the Beginning of the 21st Century: Perceptual Approach (Perceptual Categorisation of Variants”, 2017–2019. The respondents of both projects are the first-fourth year grammar school pupils whom the scholars associate with the emic perspective. The first attempt concerned the data related with the verbalised and visualised (in the drawn maps) language attitudes of 1.415 teenagers; the second one analysed the data related with the verbalised and visualised (in the drawn maps) language attitudes of 1.064 youngsters and the data of the perception of the text-stimuli recorded in an adequate dialect. Both projects are interrelated with regard to the subject matter and the pursued goals: in the first case, an attempt was made to analyse the geolinguistic competence of an ordinary member of language community; in the second one, an additional aspect of the perceptual abilities of an ordinary member of language community was considered. During the performance of the two projects the essential criterion for the selection of the locations in the regions of Lithuania to be explored was whether they were (non)marked by dialect. Hence the respondent groups were formed in the regiolect and/or geolect zones, and in the second project the task of the text-stimuli perception had motivated the inclusion of the Lithuanian cities. The problem of how an ordinary member of language community creates the dialecticity of a location has been approached on the basis of the data given in the drawn maps presented in the two projects. The participants of the first project have drawn the so called perceptual isoglosses in two maps, i.e. in one map they have marked the areas where people speak in dialect and, in the other, where standard language was used. Meanwhile, the participants of the second project in their drawn maps related the linguistic homeland with other locations due to the similarity (or simultaneity) of expression. They also had to draw the maps of standard language and, in addition, localise 8 text-stimuli given to them for assessment which contained the 14–19 seconds fragments of spontaneous speech representing various regiolectic zones. To summarise the obtained results, it should be claimed that etic and emic discourses should be essentially related to the cause and effect factor. The narrative of an ordinary member of language community not only reveals the specific interior relationships but is also affected from outside. Such an insight is determined by the interaction between the created dialecticity of a locality and the dialecticity of localities legitimated in scientific discourse. The results obtained in both projects on perceptual dialectology show that the dialecticity of a locality has been constructed on the basis of adequate etic information: it is obvious from the drawn maps that dialecticity is attracted by the localities that are highly dialect-oriented, i.e. the geolectic and regiolectic areas. This assumption is based on the localisation of the text-stimulus having the most distinct features of dialect which confirms that dialect recognition by the ordinary members of language community does not enter into conflict with the researcher's evaluation from outside. Thus it shows that localities do consistently attract the text-stimuli having the most distinct features of dialect. Meanwhile, as a place of dialect levelling, the capital (or any city) accurately correlates with the NORM reflection of traditional dialectology. The paper summarises that it is not clear yet in what ways the constructors of the narrative from inside are affected by the narratives from outside. There is no tradition formed in the works on perceptual dialectology and no adequate methodological instruments have been devised which might help to find out the sources of knowledge, images and attitudes of the ordinary members of language community. Hence, in order to more clearly describe the relationship between the narrative of a researcher and that of an ordinary member of language community it would be reasonable to move an additional step forward – to expand the instrumentarium and methods of research by including the reflections of the ordinary members of language community regarding the knowledge, images and attitudes that they possess in the field of dialecticity. Thus a new perspective in dialectology should be initiated.

The paper provides an overview of Lithuanian spontaneous speech corpora and certain studies of the acquisition of Lithuanian as a first language. The author focuses mainly on those resources and papers that are published in English and thus can be used by non-Lithuanian speaking researchers as methodological and/or theoretical inspiration for further studies on different languages. Among the spoken corpora discussed in the paper are: the speech corpus Liepa, Sakytinės kalbos įrašų bazė, the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian. The author pays special attention to the latter as it is closely connected to the development of the Lithuanian corpus of child and child-directed speech. The studies of the acquisition of Lithuanian as a first language are overviewed in the second part of the paper. The majority of studies on corpus data (including those conducted within international cross-linguistic projects) describe the acquisition of grammar by native speakers of Lithuanian. In the most recent research, there is a shift towards new aspects of first language acquisition (including phonology and morphophonology) and new methods (experiments becoming more and more popular).

Infinitive in Lithuanian as a second languageOne of the most apparent features characteristic of learners who speak Lithuanian as a second language is their overuse of infinitive forms where such forms should not be used in Lithuanian. The analysis of the general sequence of acquisition of the Lithuanian verb system shows that the infinitive was used nearly evenly through the whole acquisition process, i. e. learners who had just started to speak Lithuanian used about the same amount of infinitive forms as the more advanced speakers. This paper analyses in detail the use of the infinitive form by the learners at different levels of acquisition, what functions and in what contexts the infinitive form performs, as well as any changes in the development. The analysis makes it evident that despite the quantitative similarity of the use of the infinitive forms in different varieties of acquisition, the use changes fundamentally in quality. Moreover, it becomes clear that even the speakers of the basic variety, who often use the infinitive as the base form of the verb and therefore also as a predicate instead of a finite form, never use the infinitive of the modal verbs in this fashion and their utterances in which the infinitive is used according to the target Lithuanian language system employ the construction of modal verbs + infinitive. The paper also analyses what other constructions with the infinitive are used, when and in what way they start being used in the post-basic variety of acquisition.

Opportunities for International Phonetic Alphabet application to the sounds of Lithuanian dialectsThe paper discusses the issues of transcription of Lithuanian dialects. It compares the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) with the characters of the currently popular font Palemonas.From the 20th to the 21st century, almost for a whole century, there has been a tradition in Lithuania to mark texts of Lithuanian dialects using the so-called Copenhagen transcription that was adapted by Georg Gerullis. The established Lithuanian transcription system largely differs from those applied in other languages, even from the closest neighbours Latvians. Therefore, researchers are often confronted with the problems of comparing the research results of several languages. In the 21st century the issues of different transcriptions became more relevant after quantitative measurements of language variance became popular. They are usually made by computer programs which require identical data.The discussion paper analyses the opportunities for IPA application to the sounds of Lithuanian dialects, discusses the marking correspondences of vowels, consonants, some phonetic features and prosodic units in the font Palemonas and IPA, and provides examples of words from various Lithuanian subdialects transcribed by applying both systems.

The concept of the null article in English was originally developed as a means of explaining the apparent paradox that singular nouns with the same surface form, namely the non-presence of a grammatical article, are used in quite different communicative situations. Null has been described as the most definite form in the English article system, standing in direct contrast to zero at the opposite end of a scale. Yet, while this may applicable in the case of predicates nouns denoting unique roles, certain institutions where the referent is pragmatically unique, or coordinate structures with a preceding referent, there is persuasive evidence to suggest a considerable number of other null structures do not fit such a description but, on the contrary, share common characteristics with the weak form of the definite article or occupy more of a neutral position which would permit insertion of either one of the surface articles. On this basis, a proposal is advanced to acknowledge two forms of the null article, strong and weak, according to context. Rather than a corpus-based statistical approach, this paper draws upon a smaller selection of contemporary, non-fictional texts from a variety of semantic fields to illustrate the points being made.

The present article introduces a list of glosses to a collection of Lithuanian protestant spiritual hymns, compelled by Gottfried Ostermeyer, one of the prominent intellectuals and promoter of the Lithuanian culture and language of the 18th century in Lithuania Minor. The glossary was intended to facilitate the understanding of certain older or less known expressions, as Ostermeyer put it ‘obsoleta und minus cognita’, and due to political disputes among the intellectual community in East Prussian Lithuania Minor at the time of their publication fell into oblivion. The paper discuses a more or less random selection of twenty entries from the glossary, focusing on their dialectal features, semantic and morphological divergence from existing derivatives of the same root, and pays special attention to the derivational history and cross-IE cognates.Judging by the material studied in the paper the Lithuanian spoken idiom of the 17th-18th c. appears to be very vivid in onomasiology, creative in the usage of morphological means and still in possession of certain roots already gone in the dictionaries of the late 19th century and scarcely perceivable in the modern paramount linguistic database of LKŽ.

The aim of the current paper is to analyze Latvian reflexive verbs from the point of view of their polyfunctionality and distributon.The polysemy of the reflexive verbs is not usually disucussed in the connection with its distribution pattern in the sentence either. This can be partly explianed by the fact that the reflexive verb can have some non-standard language meanings, which following the established practice of the traditional grammars and sometimes even dictionaries, were not depicted in the language system description either. So the current paper is an attempt to analyze the polyfunctionality of reflexive verbs in connection with their semantic and syntactic functions, without judging the language use from the normative point of view.The classification of Latvian reflexive verbs is based on the relationship between semantic roles and syntactic structure according to the principles devised by Palmer (1994) and Saeed (1997).One and the same reflexive verb may have different lexical meanings with a different distribution for each of the meanings. One and the same verb can belong to different subclasses of the subject and object (or impersonal) verbs.Some reflexive verbs have evaluative or aspectual (iterative) meanings. The evaluative meanings usually are manifested by a positive or negative assessment of the event (the context can be enhanced by the adverbs good or bad) and the consequences while the aspectual meaning is manifested by the intensity of the action, that is – iterativity.The study confirms the assumption that reflexive verbs are independent lexemes as opposed to non-reflexive verb forms. Each reflexive verb has its distinct semantic system and distribution which is different from polysemy of non-reflexive verbs and their distribution. The system of reflexive verbs in Latvian is open where new meanings and even new reflexive verbs arise particularly in colloquial use.

[full article and abstract in English] This paper describes The Corpus of Lithuanian Children’s Language and its possible applications for modern studies on the first language acquisition. First of all, the procedure of data collection for the Corpus is discussed. Furthermore, the main methodological principles of longitudinal and experimental data compilation and transciption are decribed. Finally, different studies in developmental psycholinguistics which have been carried out so far and which demonstrate possible ways of the application of the Corpus data for different scientific purposes are introduced. The Corpus of Lithuanian Children’s Language developed at Vytautas Magnus University comprises typical and atypical, longitudinal and experimental data of the Lithuanian language development. The Corpus was compiled using different methodological approaches, such as natural observation and semi-experiment. The longitudinal data (conversations between the target children and their caretakers) compiled according to the requirement of natural observation includes transcribed and morphologically annotated speech of two typically-developing children, one late talker, one early talker, one child from a low SES family, and a pair of twins. The data was collected during the period of 1993–2017 and and it can be divided into three cohorts. The semi-experimentaldata (~ 124 hours) comes from numerous studies in narratives and spontaneous dialogues elicited from typically-developing and language-impaired monolingual and bilingual (pre-) school age children. From the very beginning of data collection for the The Corpus of Lithuanian Children’s Language, studies in the develomental changes of typical child language have been carried out. Over the past decade, these studies have been supplemented by statistical analysis of elicited semi-experimental data; the majority of these studies deal with typical vs. atypical (delayed or impaired) language acquisition and with differences between acquision of Lithuanian in a monolingual vs. bi-/polylingual settings. The paper provides an overview of data of The Corpus of Lithuanian Children’s Language, which have been collected from 1993 but still needed to be structurized according to the employed methodology of data compilation and possible applications for different scientific purposes.

In the recent decade the realisations of evidentiality and epistemic modality in European languages have received a great scholarly interest and resulted in important investigations concerning the relation between evidentiality and epistemic modality, their means of expression and meaning extensions in various types of discourse. The present paper deals with the adverbials akivaizdžiai ‘evidently’, aiškiai ‘clearly’, ryškiai ‘visibly, clearly’, matyt ‘apparently, evidently’ and regis ‘seemingly’, which derive from the source domain of perception, and the epistemic necessity adverbials tikriausiai/veikiausiai/greičiausiai ‘most probably’, būtinai ‘necessarily’ and neabejotinai ‘undoubtedly’. The aim of the paper is to explore the morphosyntactic properties of the adverbials when they are used as evidential or epistemic markers and compare the distribution of their evidential and epistemic functions in Lithuanian fiction, news and academic discourse. The data have been drawn from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, the Corpus of Academic Lithuanian and the bidirectional translation corpus ParaCorpEN→LT→EN (Šolienė 2012, 2015). The quantitative findings reveal distributional differences of the adverbials under study across different types of discourse. Functional variation of the evidential perception-based adverbials is determined to a great extent by the degree of epistemic commitment, evidenced not only by intra-linguistic but also cross-linguistic data. The non-perception based adverbials tikriausiai/veikiausiai/greičiausiai ‘most probably’, būtinai ‘necessarily’ and neabejotinai ‘undoubtedly’ are the primary adverbial markers of epistemic necessity in Lithuanian, though some of them may have evidential meaning extensions. A parallel and comparable corpus-based analysis has once again proved to be a very efficient tool for diagnosing language-specific features and describing an inventory used to code language-specific evidential and epistemic meanings.

The aim of this paper is to investigate ‘I promise’ and its counterpart in (Peninsular) Spanish prometo. After briefly revisiting the theoretical debate on performativity and performative verbs, the paper adopts a corpus-based approach to quantify the main uses of ‘I promise’ in both languages. This contrastive analysis has an ultimate didactic purpose, since these verbs can raise problems of understanding and use for Spanish learners of English as a foreign language (EFL henceforth) and of translation studies. In order to carry out this analysis, the British National Corpus and the Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual were used, manually fine-graining the initial automatic search. To make both datasets comparable, only the oral and the fiction sections were considered since they are both shared by the two corpora. Interestingly, during the analysis there has also emerged an unexpected result which seems to be pointing out to the beginning of a linguistic change in Spanish. Thus, it can be observed that there is an emergent use in Spanish of the verb amenazar (‘to threaten’), sometimes with the action function of “promising”. This emergent use seems to be especially frequent in computer-mediated communication (e.g. blogs, forums, etc.) but it is still extremely rare in English.

This paper deals with the expression of evaluation in German and Lithuanian court judgments in civil cases. The purpose is to analyze lexical and grammatical devices, used by the court – the source of evaluation in this text type – in its judgments to express its opinion towards certain objects of evaluation. The analyzed corpus consists of 10 randomly selected court judgments in German (44 522 words in total) and 10 in Lithuanian (38 347 words in total). The actual scope of the paper is a particular part of the judgments, namely, the grounds, in which the court examines the suit, pleadings of the parties, certain issues, facts and circumstances relevant for the decision etc. and gives its reasons for the decision. The respective parts of court decisions make up a subcorpus of 29 274 words in German and 18 693 words in Lithuanian. The main focus of the research are the aspects of evaluation, i. e. particular attributes of the objects evaluated. It has been found that in the analyzed court judgments the objects are evaluated in terms of success, merits, admissibility, veracity, reasonableness, persuasiveness, suitability, extent, probability etc. The research shows that lexical devices used in the court judgments in both languages to express the evaluation are typically formed on the same basis, e. g. tikėtina ‘(it is) probable’ and tikimybė ‘probability’, abejoti ‘to doubt’ and abejonės ‘doubts’, unangemessen ‘unreasonable’ and Unangemessenheit ‘unreasonableness’; zweifelhaft ‘dubious’, zweifelsfrei ‘free of doubt’ and Zweifel ‘doubt’. In comparison to the German court judgments analyzed, Lithuanian court judgments contain an wider diversity of specific lexical constructions containing verba dicendi and verba putandi, in which the evaluating subject is encoded explicitly. The constructions found include the following: teismas sprendžia, kad/jog ‘the court rules that’, teismas laiko, kad ‘the court assumes that’, teismas vertina, kad ‘the court assesses that’, teismas daro išvadą, kad ‘the court concludes that’, teismo vertinimu ‘upon the court’s assessment’ etc., whereas only the verb überzeugen ‘to convince’ and one construction with the derivate of the latter: zur Überzeugung des Gerichts ‘the court is convinced’ are found in the German judgments analyzed). Furthermore, it has been noted that in this text type, lexical devices are also used to indicate that the particular issue is not relevant in this lawsuit and is not going to be evaluated. In addition, the paper examines optional elements of the evaluative construction: motivations, intensifiers and de-intensifiers. The evaluation is enhanced both lexically and by combining two and more lexemes, whereas the signals of de-intensification vary in the analyzed judgments of both languages: in addition to grammatical means, diverse lexical modal words, such as kaum ‘hardly’, grundsätzlich ‘basically’, offenbar ‘apparently’, jedenfalls ‘at any rate’, vielmehr ‘rather’ are used in the German judgments, whereas in Lithuanian, there is mainly a participle of necessity employed in this way, and the lexical modifiers used are limited to the construction iš esmės ‘basically’.

The paper examines Lithuanian posture constructions such as stovi stačias ‘stands uprightʼ which have been briefly discussed in Holvoet (2008). However, a more exhaustive examination has not been carried out yet. The discussion is based on 1002 examples from The Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language. Some of the secondary predicates occurring in posture constructions exhibit semantic features of either resultatives or depictives, while the others cannot be clearly judged as resultatives or depictives since they show both kinds of features. The encoding of the secondary predicates also oscillates between the depictive and the resultative marking. Thus the purpose of the paper is to establish the factors which determine different semantic interpretations and different formal marking of the construction. The author follows Holvoet (2008) in assuming that the semantic structure of the constructions depends on the semantic features of the verb. It is proposed that the lexical aspect and the lexical meaning of the verb determine a resultative, a depictive or a “neutralized” (“intermediate”) interpretation of the construction. As the data show, the secondary predicate is usually encoded by an adjective (depictive-like marking), however, sometimes it is expressed by an adverb (resultative-like marking) as well. It is assumed that the choice between the adjective and the adverb is determined by the lexical features of the secondary predicate rather than of the verb. Some of the posture notions seem to be more oriented towards the participant of an event and thus opt to be expressed by an adjective, while others are more oriented towards the event and therefore are encoded by an adverb. It is hypothesized that the reason for the oscillating marking lies in the constructions with a neutralized meaning. The cases which are ambiguous between the depictive and the resultative meaning constitute a precondition for establishing the double marking. This twofold marking is then extended to the constructions which carry clearly the depictive or the resultative meaning.

Discussions sessions have not received much attention within the genre of conference presentations. In this paper, we present the theoretical framework that underlies the approach followed to analyse the multimodal expression of evaluation. Then, an example of the application of the study has been considered necessary to understand it. Corpus linguistics provided the indications to collect the corpus, annotate it and find the appropriate software to digitalise the relevant information for the study. Secondly, genre studies and conversational analysis gave the clues to establish a structure in the linguistic expressions found in the discussion sessions of paper presentations. Thirdly, systemic functional linguistics and pragmatics provided the basis for an evaluative scheme that could be applied to the academic discourse of the corpus, considering its multimodal nature. Fourthly, the tools to observe the non-verbal communication associated with evaluative language were found in multimodal discourse analysis studies. All together, the application of these variables led to an original study of discussion sessions, which deployed interesting results.

The paper offers a functional analysis of three Latvian verbs of speaking used in their indicative third person forms – saka, runā and stāsta ‘say(s), speak(s) and talk(s)’ – based on the Latvian language corpus online (www.korpuss.lv) and, additionally, on examples excerpted from Internet discourse. The article discusses semantic and syntactic similarities and differences between these words, the functions of particular constructions distinguished according to specific syntactic criteria (presence vs. absence of a subject), and the use of these verbs in combination with the Latvian verb form traditionally associated with (potential) evidential meanings, the oblique (atstāstījuma izteiksme). While the use of verbs of speaking for introducing reported speech is seen as unproblematic, the relationship between verba dicendi and evidentiality requires more attention and remains in focus throughout this study. In order to offer an in-depth overview of the nature of this relationship, the relations between reported speech and evidentiality, as well as the oblique and evidentiality, are also briefly considered. The paper concludes that the possibility of the three verbs functioning as evidential markers depends on considerations of theoretical/terminological nature (how to define evidentiality, should reported speech be considered part of it, etc.) and also, to some extent, on the way the subject is realized in verba dicendi constructions (specific human agent vs. non-specific empty subject and absent or zero subject).

The aim of the present paper is to investigate the frequency and distribution patterns as well as the spectrum of modal meanings conveyed by the Lithuanian modal verb of possibility galėti ‘can/could/may/might’ in academic Lithuanian. The study is based on Corpus Academicum Lithuanicum (www.coralit.lt), a specialized synchronic corpus of written academic Lithuanian (roughly 9 million words). In order to allow a disciplinary comparison, the paper analyses the use of this modal verb in academic texts from three science fields: the humanities, the biomedical sciences and the technological sciences. Quantitative and qualitative approaches are employed alongside corpus-based analysis to reveal the ways in which this modal verb of possibility is used in academic language. The first part of the paper investigates the frequency patterns of various forms of galėti ‘can/could/may/might’ in the three science fields. The second part looks at the variety of meanings this modal verb can convey in Lithuanian specialised language. The results show that there is a fairly similar distribution of this modal verb across different science fields. In terms of its semantic functional capacities, galėti ‘can/could/may/might’ is used to convey all three types of modality (epistemic, deontic and dynamic), however, the most frequent use in Lithuanian academic discourse seems to be that of dynamic modality.

Expression of time is an important field in linguistic research. In Lithuanian linguistics, the study of time has focused first and foremost on tense and aspect systems. Therefore, Lithuanian language has developed a big diversity of means to encode time, e.g. noun cases (vasarą ‘in summer’) and noun phrases (liepos vakarą ‘in July evening’), prepositional phrases (po darbo ‘after work’), adverbs (netrukus ‘soon’), subordinate clauses (kai nustos lyti ‘when it stops raining’). All of them despite their different grammatical status are suggested to be called temporal adverbials. ‘Adverbial’ is a quite new notion in Lithuanian linguistics, it was first presented in the studies of stance adverbials but is also convenient in the field of linguistic expression of time. The purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the necessity of distinguishing a semantic-functional class of temporal adverbials in Lithuanian linguistics and to show their position in the system of means that encode time. The second part of the paper presents a few semantic models of the temporal adverbials made by foreign linguists and the semantic research of Lithuanian temporal means that should be regarded as temporal adverbials.

The paper discusses the results of a pilot study into derivational patterns and semantics of some neologisms referring to persons given in the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms (further also DLN). The research focused on nouns ending in -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė, ‑ininkas, ‑ė, ‑ėlis, -ė, -ūnas, -ė and -uolis, -ė. Most of these words are suffixal derivatives usually attributed to the categories of nomina agentis, nomina attributiva and nomina professonalia. The analysed suffixes are very different in their productivity. The suffixes -ininkas, -ė, -tojas, -a, -uolis, -ė are very productive, whereas the suffix -ėjas, ‑a, in Lithuanian grammars treated as one of the most typical and productive agentive suffixes, in the DLN have only been attested in a couple of words. The paper also discusses when a new phenomenon should be treated as a neologism and when it is merely a new sense of the existing word, included in some key publications based on the DLN. The investigation draws a conclusion that when analysing current situation and tendencies of word-building the formal principle of classifying neologisms is not operational. According to it, a compositional neologism coinciding with the already existing word is treated as a word with a new sense rather than a neologism. However, in cases when a new lexeme of an already existing word emerges as a result of a new derivational opposition, by building a word from a new or already existing lexeme of the base word, the new lexeme should be treated as a neologism rather than a new sense of the existing word. New senses (semantic neologisms) emerge in cases of semantic development of the word as a result of meaning transfer, lexicalisation and other processes. Another aspect of the present investigation focuses on the relationship between lexical senses and senses of individual derivation. An attempt was made to identify if lexical and derivational senses were the same or whether the former was narrower or broader than the latter. If they were not the same, causes of their divergence were identified. The latter issue might be relevant when analysing further processes of neologism lexicalisation. The paper also attempts to clarify the derivational patterns (origin) of some concrete neologisms and their semantic structure. Such interpretations are appreciated and very welcome by lexicographers, who are responsible for appropriately presenting neologisms in lexicographic publications. Alongside derivatives, analogous, mixed, contaminative formations as well as translations have been discussed. These derivative and formal aspects of neologisms might turn out to be very important in further investigation of larger and more varied groups of affixal derivatives and identifying general features of contemporary word-building. In pursuing the main goal of the investigation, an attempt was also made to discuss in more detail the DLN as a source of new Lithuanian lexis. It has been noticed that the DLN lacks a number of neologisms which are base words for the ones given in the database. They have all been attested on the internet. Such base words in the DLN would help define their derivatives without repeating the information which is inevitably given in the definition of the base word. Seeking precision, some definitions of the neologisms should be revised; for example, definition patterns of nouns should not be used to define adjectives. In some cases, a neologism given in the DLN as a single lexeme should be presented as two different lexemes, for example, the word pilstukininkas, –ė ‘someone who sells or drinks low quality home-brewed alcohol’ should be given as two lexemes representing two derivational categories: nomina professonalia and nomina attributiva. One of the goals of the investigation was concerned with exploring further prospects of researching the derivation of neologisms, posing the key questions and verifying their relevance. Presumably, the results of the investigation could be used in researching the tendencies of deriving neologisms in contemporary Lithuanian and comparing them with the tendencies described in the grammars of Lithuanian of the 2nd half of the 20th century. It would be interesting to ascertain how derivational patterns of neologisms are changing, when the lexicon is inevitably changing due to an enormous flow of information, more intensive communication in smaller communities and in the world, due to new emerging mass media and under the influence of other languages, especially English, which is structurally much more distant than Russian, a language having influenced Lithuanian several decades ago. (Translated by Inesa Šeškauskienė).

Recent trends in academic discourse analysis reveal a keen scholarly interest in cross-disciplinary and cross-linguistic variation in academic texts. While most of the research is still on the English language, the last few decades have seen an upsurge of interest in academic discourse produced in other languages, frequently comparing it to patterns of writing and argumentation in Anglo-American scientific texts. Numerous studies attempt to outline the universal features of academic discourse as well as to highlight the specific ones, typical only of some of the disciplines or cultural communities. Thus, features of academic discourse are often interpreted within the “big” (i. e. national) and “small” (i. e. disciplinary) culture context (cf. Atkinson 2004). The paper briefly reviews trends in current academic discourse research, mainly in the genre of the research article. The purpose of the paper is to discuss the challenges that researchers of academic discourse face while compiling specialized comparable corpora for their cross-disciplinary and cross-linguistic analyses and to highlight certain methodological issues which are important in this type of analyses. As noted by many researchers in the field, the reliability of the results and a better empirical grounding primarily depend on the appropriately selected common ground of comparison. An overview of recently published research on cross-linguistic and cross-disciplinary aspects of academic discourse reveals various methodological solutions to corpus design and data analysis.

The aim of this work is to analyse the challenges that language editors face when editing texts and to investigate the linguistic attitudes and motivation of editors. The paper analyses 10 qualitative in-depth semi-structured interviews with language editors. The average length of each interview is 45 minutes. The research material consists of a total of 7 hours of audio recordings of the interviews, the transcribed recordings make up 100 pages of text. The texts edited by the participants vary in their nature: cultural, legal, film texts, scientific, medical, culinary, business, fiction literature and etc. It has been found that language editors face various challenges in their work: for example, difficulties due to late Lithuanian terminology, liberalising Lithuanian language policy. The linguistic attitudes of the editors have been analysed: the participants in the study do not question the idea of language normalization and explain its importance with various arguments. They stress the prestige of the common language and the difference between public and private language. The participants of the study criticise some aspects of the Lithuanian language policy: some decisions of The State Commission of the Lithuanian Language are questioned, as well as language purism. The most important aspect of language editing, according to the editors, is the fluency and clarity of the text. It was found that most of the informants feel that they contribute to the development of the language and influence the language.

Discussions sessions have not received much attention within the genre of conference presentations. In this paper, we present the theoretical framework that underlies the approach followed to analyse the multimodal expression of evaluation. Then, an example of the application of the study has been considered necessary to understand it. Corpus linguistics provided the indications to collect the corpus, annotate it and find the appropriate software to digitalise the relevant information for the study. Secondly, genre studies and conversational analysis gave the clues to establish a structure in the linguistic expressions found in the discussion sessions of paper presentations. Thirdly, systemic functional linguistics and pragmatics provided the basis for an evaluative scheme that could be applied to the academic discourse of the corpus, considering its multimodal nature. Fourthly, the tools to observe the non-verbal communication associated with evaluative language were found in multimodal discourse analysis studies. All together, the application of these variables led to an original study of discussion sessions, which deployed interesting results.

The purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the necessity of distinguishing a semantic-functional class of stance adverbials in Lithuanian. Following Biber et al. (1999) and Hasselgård (2010) an attempt is made to show that alongside circumstance adverbials there are also linking adverbials and stance adverbials in Lithuanian. The means of realization of stance adverbials in Lithuanian is not only adverbs but also so called modal words (galbūt ‘maybe’, tikriausiai ‘most probably’), various particles (taigi ‘therefore’, visgi ‘still’, ‘nevertheless’), CTPs (manoma ‘it is believed’, natūralu ‘naturally’), various adverbial clauses (kaip matyti ‘as it is seen, as one can see’, kaip žinoma ‘as is known’) but also prepositional phrases (pasak X ‘according to X’). The article devotes much attention to the semantic classification of the basic types of stance adverbials, which has been illustrated by the language data collected from the Corpus of Academic Lithuanian (Corpus Academicum Lithuanicum – CorALit – http://coralit.lt). The paper also touches upon the process of adverbialization and its relationship to grammaticalization which presupposes the desemanticization and (inter)subjectivization of the linguistic expressions under analysis. Many Lithuanian verbal and adjectival CTPs like žinoma ‘it is known’, suprantama ‘it is understood’, tarkim ‘let’s say’ can develop into stance adverbials and further into discourse markers by losing any links to the original lexical meaning of the verb they have evolved from. ------ Straipsnio tikslas parodyti, kodėl reikėtų ir kodėl galima būtų skirti semantinę-funkcinę adverbialų klasę lietuvių kalboje. Pastaroji nėra tapatinama su prieveiksmiais kaip tradicine kalbos dalimi gramatikoje ar aplinkybėmis kaip tradicine sakinio dalimi sintaksėje. Be to, nėra kvestionuojamas aptariamų kalbos reiškinių statusas kalbos dalių ar sakinio dalių požiūriu. Siūloma atkreipti dėmesį į kalboje objektyviai egzistuojančią straipsnyje aptariamų raiškos priemonių aiškinimo įvairovę. Jų semantinė-funkcinė charakteristika netelpa į prieveiksmių (DLKG 1996, 422-429; Valeckienė 1998, 169-170), aplinkybių (DLKG 1996, 527-553; Valeckienė 1998, 55-66) bei modifikuojamųjų dalelyčių (Valeckienė 1998, 191) reikšmių ir tipų klasifikaciją. Šios semantinės-funkcinės klasės aptarimas remiasi autoriaus pozicijos raiškos tyrimu lietuvių mokslo kalboje1. Visi kalbos duomenys surinkti iš Lietuvių mokslo kalbos tekstyno (Corpus Academicum Lithuanicum: http://coralit.lt/). Darbe trumpai apžvelgiami akademinio diskurso ypatumai ir autoriaus pozicijos vaidmuo užmezgant ir plėtojant dialogą su skaitytoju. Epizodiškai gretinami adverbialinių autoriaus pozicijos sąvokos apimties ir jos raiškos būdų ypatumai kitose kalbose. Pateikiama autoriaus pozicijos adverbialų semantinė klasifikacija ir jų raiškos priemonių įvairovė. Labai trumpai aptariama adverbializacijos proceso esmė ir jo sąsajos su gramatikalizacija bei intersubjektyvumu.

VERBS OF PROBABILITY IN ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN: IN SEARCH OF EQUIVALENTSSummaryThe paper looks at the qualitative and quantitative parameters of equivalence between English verbs of probability SEEM, APPEAR (LGSWE 1999: 708, 977) and their Lithuanian translation equivalents. The focus of the pilot study is on the following types of structures: English (BNC) Lithuanian (CCLL)JY0 1825 And they seemed to be old friends. CGE 887 She appeared a quick learner.Man atrodo, tebesu paauglė.Kol avižos auga, laukas atrodo žalias.The data for the translation corpus have been compiled from fiction (Rowling 2000), the British National Corpus (http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/), the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language and the Parallel English-Lithuanian corpus (http://donelaitis.vdu.lt), monolingual/bilingual dictionaries and grammar books. The purpose of the analysis is to compare the syntactic and semantic potential of the given verbs in the two languages to mark stance and to express speaker’s uncertainty. The paper aims to see what alternatives/decisions are preferred by translators and how much they are influenced by the source language, which might contribute to the discussion of the notion of equivalence in translation.

LITHUANIAN GAUTI (‘GET’) AND TEKTI (‘BE GOTTEN’): ASPECTS OF GRAMMATICALIZATIONSummaryThe paper deals with the Lithuanian get-verbs gauti (‘get’) and tekti (‘be gotten’) within the framework of grammaticalization. The purpose of the paper is to analyze semantic as well as morphosyntactic properties of the verbs under the study and to disclose their tendencies towards grammaticalization. Following the point of view that the very beginning of the process of grammaticalization is in the context of a particular construction the focus of the paper is on the constructional patterns in which the verbs gauti (‘get’) and tekti (‘be gotten’) appear and on the basic types of complements of the verbs. Since frequency is considered to be an important indicator of grammaticalization, the paper looks at the quantitative distribution of basic structural types of complements used with the Lithuanian get-verbs under analysis. Besides, types of modal meanings which gauti (‘get’) and tekti (‘be gotten’) denote are analyzed as well.The Lithuanian verbs gauti (‘get’) and tekti (‘be gotten’) express an ingressive aspect of possession, i.e. onset of possession or acquisition. As lexical verbs with the meaning of acquisition the Lithuanian get-verbs are found in the constructional patterns with NP as their grammatical object. When the noun possessed denotes a concrete entity, the verbs have the meaning of concrete acquisition, and when the noun denotes an abstract entity, the verbs express an abstract acquisition. Both verbs gauti (‘get’) and tekti (‘be gotten’) more often tend to express abstract acquisition. However, there are some differences in the possibilities of expressing the lexical meaning of acquisition: only the verb gauti (‘get’) most frequently functions as the full lexical verb and the verb tekti (‘be gotten’), in contrast, functions as the modal verb.Modal meanings of the Lithuanian get-verbs are expressed by the constructions with an infinitival complement (INF). Both of the verbs gauti (‘get’) and tekti (‘be gotten’) denote non-epistemic necessity and non-epistemic possibility. However, the meaning of non-epistemic possibility seems to be very peripheral for the Lithuanian get-verbs. It is worth to notice that the modal verb tekti (‘be gotten’), besides its modal meanings, in certain contexts tend to mark aspectual meaning of perfectivity. However, the conclusion about the status of the verb tekti (‘be gotten’) as an aspectual marker requires further analysis.

ABOUT THE POSSIBLE ANCIENT CZECH-BALTIC LEXICAL CONNECTIONSSummaryThe paper deals with the ancient (up to the 13th century A. D.) Czech–Baltic lexical correspondences. The West Balts are supposed to penetrate into Moravia and the territory of the middle Danube. Probably they were the Galinds, that at the turn of the two eras moved from South Prussia, their homeland, to the South and split into two branches in the territory of Volyn. Accord­ing to the data of onomastics and toponymies, one of the branches settled near the Czech–Polish boundary, another moved to Podmoskovye. Here follows the enumeratien of the Czech lexemes touched upon in the paper and having the Baltic (and some of them also Russian) correspondences:Klábositi ‘to chat, to talk nonsense’, lebediti se ‘to be in bliss, luxuriate’, třměti ‘to reel’, baracht(a) ‘chatter, babble’, klopýtati‘to stumble, to stagger along’, hárati se‘to heat (about cow)’, harhule ‘growth on a tree, excrescence’, batoliti se ‘waddle’, šklebit ‘to light dimly’, kobrtati ‘to stumble’, drobiti ‘to feel feverish, to shiver’, rozblptati ‘to be boiled to pulp’, duznit ‘to bang one’s back’, obočí ‘eyebow’, duněti ‘to rattle’, žíně ‘a special rope for climbing to a beehive on a tree’, těpiti ‘to carry’, řije ‘period if heat of deers’.

Latvian secondary verbs based on sta-presentsSummaryIn an earlier paper (Pakerys 2007), I presented a number of Lithuanian secondary verbal formations which are based on sta-presents, cf.: vargst‑áuti ‘to live in trouble, to have difficulties’, rūkst‑ė́ti ‘to emit smoke’, linkst‑úoti ‘to bend (intr.)’ beside var̃g‑st‑a ‘lives in poverty, takes trouble’, rū̃k‑st‑a ‘emits smoke’, liñk‑st‑a ‘bends (intr.)’, etc. I suggested that these formations could support the hypothesis which claims that the Lithuanian and Latvian iterative suffix -stī- arose due to the reanalysis of formations in -ī‑t(i) originally based on present stems in -sta (cf. competing denominative hypothesis which similarly proposes the reanalysis of formations in -ī‑t(i) which were originally based on nominal stems in -st-).In this paper, I tried to answer the question if secondary verbs based on sta‑presents are an exclusively Lithuanian phenomenon, or if they can be also found in Latvian. The data presented here were excerpted from the electronic edition of “Latviešu valodas vārdnīca” by Mülenbachs and Endzelīns (http://www.ailab.lv/MEV, accessed on 2007—2009) by searching for the verbs ending in ‑stāt(ies), -stēt(ies), -stīt(ies), ‑stināt(ies), and ‑stuot(ies). The main findings can be summarized as follows.The secondary verbal formations based on sta‑presents are also possible in Latvian, but they are very rare and non-regular, just as the Lithuanian ones. These formations belong to a broader group of (non-regular) nominal and verbal derivatives based on the present stems characterized by certain formatives or root vocalism. The closest parallel for the verbal formations which include the present formative -st- can be found in some adjectives in -īgs, cf.: birst‑īgs ‘friable’, (ne)mir̃st‑îgs ‘(im)mortal’ beside bir̃‑st‑u ‘I fall (of small objects)’, (ne)mir̃‑st‑u ‘I (do not) die’, etc. (Blinkena 1984).As far as specific verbal suffixes are concerned, the number of examples and their interpretation varies. To start with, I was unable to find any formations ending in ‑stāt or ‑stuot which would be based on sta‑presents. On the other hand, it is worth noting that an independent suffix -stāt is possible in two formations, cf. je̦m̃‑stâ‑t ‘wiederholt nehmen; to take repeatedly’ beside je̦mu, jẽmu, jem̃t ‘nehmen; to take’ and žã‑stâ‑tiês ‘gähnen; to yawn’ beside Lith. žióti(s) (-ja(si)) ‘to open (one’s mouth)’. These examples possibly reflect a well-known variation of present stems in *‑ā and *‑āja, cf. Lith. mė́tyti, mė́to beside (rare) mė́toti, mė́toja, Latv. mę̃tât, mę̃tãju, OCS mětati, mětajǫ, etc. Some verbs ending in -stuot have primary counterparts with present sta-stems, but these formations are most probably just some variants alongside verbs in -stīt. So just as there is lakstuôt ‘springen; to jump’ beside lakstît ‘idem’, one finds cīkstuôtiês ‘kämpfen, ringen; to fight’ beside cīkstîtiês ‘idem’ and the primary verb cīk‑st‑uôs, cijuos, cīties ‘idem’.The development of some verbs ending in -stēt was already described by Endzelīns (1951, 761). He suggested that in a number of cases, the present stem formative -st- was reanalyzed as a part of the lexical stem and the suffix -ē‑ was introduced in the infinitive and the preterit stems, cf. drì(k)st‑êt, drì(k)st‑u, drì(k)st‑ẽju ‘dürfen, wagen, sich unterstehen; to be allowed, to dare’ alongside Lithuanian drį̃s‑ti, drį̃{s}‑sta, drį̃s‑o ‘to dare’. Therefore, these cases also illustrate the possibility to create verbs on the basis of present stems in -sta, but they have to be regarded as a certain reshaping of the same words rather than a derivation (i.e. the formation of new lexical items with certain derivational meaning beside their base words). The only possible iterative formations (not mentioned in Endzelīn’s list) are tupst‑êtiês ‘sich wiederholt hinhokken; to squat down (intr.) repeatedly’ beside tup‑st‑u(ôs) (tupju(ôs), tūpu(ôs) are also attested), tupu(ôs), tupt(iês) ‘(sich nieder)hocken; to squat down (intr.)’ and sprãkst‑êt (spārgst‑êt) ‘mit Knall bersten; to crackle, to sputter’ alongside sprâg‑st‑u, sprâgu, sprâgt ‘bersten, platzen; to burst’ (already mentioned by Leskien 1902/1903, 172).There are 5 verbs ending in -stināt which are based on sta‑presents. All of them have causative meaning, cf.: ir̃st‑inât ‘auftrennen (eine Naht); to undo (a seam) : ir̃‑st‑u, iru, ir̃t ‘sich auf‑, lostrennen, sich bröckeln; to disintegrate’; kalst‑inât ‘hungern lassen; to make starve’ : kàl{t}‑st‑u, kàltu, kàlst ‘mager werden, verkommen; to grow weaker, thinner’; pĩkst‑inât ‘zörgen, zum Zorne reisen; to make anger’ : pîk‑st‑u, pîku, pîkt ‘zornig, böse werden; to become angry’; sprāgst‑inât ‘aufplatzen machen; to make burst’ : sprâg‑st‑u, sprâgu, sprâgt ‘bersten, platzen; to burst’; pazīst‑inât ‘bekannt machen; to acquaint’ : pazĩ‑st‑u, pazinu, pazĩt ‘erkennen; to know, to be acquainted’. In all cases the present stems of the base verbs have no variants, so these examples have to be regarded as quite reliable.The interpretation of verbs ending in -stīt is rather complicated. The iterative suffix -stīt is itself quite productive, and the fact that some base verbs have present sta‑stems could be just a coincidence. However some formations have causative meaning which is not typical for the suffix -stīt. Therefore, these verbs have to be derivations in -īt based on the present stems in -sta, cf. gul̃st‑ît ‘niederlegen; to lay, to put down’ : gul‑st‑u (also guļu), gulu (also gūlu), gul̃t ‘sich lagern; lie down’; līkst‑ît ‘to sway, to rock’ : lìk‑st‑u, lìku, lìkt ‘sich biegen, krumm werden; to bend’; ìetupst‑ît ‘nachlässig hineinsetzen; to put in carelessly’ : *ìetup‑st‑u (the prefixed stem in -sta is not attested in the dictionary, but cf. tup‑st‑u beside tupju, tūpu), ìetupu, ìetupt ‘sich hineinhocken, sich herein‑, hineinsetzen; to squat into’.In conclusion, the data presented here and in Pakerys 2007 show that both Latvian and Lithuanian have some deverbative formations based on the present stems in -sta. There seem to be no reliable examples of common East Baltic formations of this type (cf. only Latvian rim̂stît‑iês2 ‘wiederholt still od. ruhig werden; to calm down (intr.)’ beside Lithuanian nu‑rìmstyti ‘to calm down (trans.)’), but the possibility to use the present stems with certain formatives as the base of derivation is clearly shared by both languages. These formations support the deverbative hypothesis of the origin of the Lithuanian and Latvian iterative suffix -stī-, but it also does not imply that the denominative hypothesis has to be rejected.

POSTPOSITIONAL LOCATIVES IN LITHUANIANSummaryThe paper argues that postpositional locatives in Lithuanian (inessive, illative, adessive, allative) are not formations of the same epoch, but rather they were formed at different times; the pro­cess of their formation must have been long and continued right up to the appearance of the first Lithuanian printed book when the case-forms fell into a decline. First came singular forms, next — plural forms. More complicated and protracted was the development of inessive and adessive case-forms.Ā- and ē-stem sg. iness. and ill. forms (e. g. šakojè, žẽmėje, šakõn, žẽmėn) are considered to be the oldest. The other sg. ill. and particularly sg. iness. forms are products of later development, as they are, as a rule, constructed in the above-mentioned pattern. The paper gives a detailed analysis of the case-forms and on the basis of the analysis it argues that the singular of all postpositional locatives had already been formed and become stable by the beginning of the period of writing -nothing of the kind can be said of the plural. Only illative and allative possessed then stable plural forms.The development of pl. iness. and adess. forms was hindered by the residual ancient Indo-European locative in -su. The centre of the author's attention, however, is the interrelationship of the case-forms and particularly the origin and development of pl. iness. and adess. case-forms.On the basis of a detailed analysis of the old writings, the author argues that the pl. iness. šakosa derives not from šakose, as is generally assumed, but it presents by itself a transformed version of the older form šakosu. The form šakose is to be derived not from the pl. acc. * šakā́s + *éп, but it should be treated as a transform of šakosu от šakosa in -e from the sg. inessive, cf. šakojè. Pl. adess. šakosumpi is not a transform of šakosempi, as is generally assumed, but the older variant of the plural adessive, a variant derived from the old locative. Its subsequent variant is šakosampi and the newest — šakosempi.The paper also examines other problems relating to the history of postpositional locatives, e. g. the specificity of the development of the adessive of personal pronouns, the transformation of enclitic postposition into stressed in iness. and ill. case-forms, the reduction of the case-forms, etc. The paper shows in passing that 16th century Lithuanians pronounced most frequently the pl. adess. šakosempi as šakosémpi (with stress on e), not as šakósempi, as is generally assumed.

On the accentual value of Lithuanian nominal suffixesSummaryThis paper presents some remarks on the definition of accentual value of Lithuanian nominal suffixes. All of these suffixes determine the accentuation of derivatives and, therefore, these morphemes can be considered as dominant. It is argued in this paper that the classification of nominal suffixes into strengthening and weakening ones should be based on the effect these suffixes make on the stems of the derivatives rather than on the stems of the base words. One should note that the weakening suffixes can be not only weak, but also strong in some cases. The description of strong suffixes should not be limited to indicating whether they are acute or non-acute. If the vocal phonemes of the suffix belong to two syllables, the place of the stress also has to be taken into account. In a number of cases the accentual properties of suffixes are conditional (i.e. when the derivatives of these suffixes are described, additional rules have to be provided or at least the irregular items have to be listed). On the other hand, one should note that the majority of suffixes are unconditional (the accentuation of their derivatives is not related to certain conditions).