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Echis carinatus (E. carinatus) is known for its hematological and nephrotoxic properties in the envenomed patients. Based on the limited data upon the cardiovascular changes associated with this dangerous venomous snake in Iran, the current study purposed to evaluate the venom-induced hemodynamic manifestations in rats. Venom (120 µg/kg) was administered intravenously within one minute through the left femoral vein, and the hemodynamic parameters were continuously recorded using a pressure transducer (MLT844, ADInstruments, Australia). The venom caused prominent hypotension leading to death a few minutes after a transient uprise in blood pressure. It also induced a decrease in heart and pulmonary rates, yet it had no arrhythmogenic properties. Additionally, pre-treatment with the pepsin-derived Iranian polyvalent antivenom (30 µl/Kg) completely neutralized the hemodynamic responses but had no effect when instilled two minutes after venom injection. Heparin (300 IU/kg) and epinephrine (1.5 µg/kg) prevented dramatic hypotension when used 10 minutes before venom instillation; however, atropine (1 mg/kg), dexamethasone (1 mg/kg), and ketorolac (10 mg/ml) had no effects. All treated rats were killed post-injection. Histologically, the lung was the most vulnerable organ with mononuclear infiltration, microcystic formation, and significant capillary congestion. Prominent renal pathological deterioration also occurred, including mesangial cell infiltration and diffuse bleeding, leading to acute tubular necrosis. Modest portal inflammation and vascular congestion were observed in the hepatic tissue of the envenomed rats. The crude venom of Iranian Echis carinatus caused hypotension leading to bradycardia, a decrease in pulmonary rate, and death without significant histological changes to the heart.

Use of medicinal plants to prevent and cure snakebites: current situation and perspectives. A review Introduction. Snakebites are a public, social and economic health problem in subtropical and tropical regions. To cope with this problem, the inhabitants of these regions often resort to medicinal plants recognized in traditional knowledge. This paper offers a synthesis of the state of traditional and scientific knowledge, on snakebite envenomation and anti-bite and anti-snake venom plants. It aims to build up a database of plant species used to prevent and cure snakebites and to highlight potential future avenues of research to enhance their pharmaceutical potential. Literature. This systematic review used the Agora database and Google Scholar as a search engine to identify, through well-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria, all relevant studies on snakebites and plants used for their prevention or treatment. Conclusions. Almost all snakebite cases reported in the scientific literature have occurred in tropical and/or third world countries, where they cause a neglected disease receiving little attention from local authorities and public health organizations. Despite this lack of attention, the literature cites the widespread use of plants as a remedy: a total of 66 plant species, grouped into 31 families, have been used to prevent snakebites and 1,127 plant species, belonging to 176 families, have been used to treat snakebites worldwide. Although some of these plants have been scientifically shown to be effective in preventing or curing snakebite envenomation, in-depth pharmacological studies need to be carried out to validate their use, in order to improve the livelihood of mostly rural communities in developing countries.

Iranian Naja oxiana (the Elapidae family) known as cobra snake inhabits in the northwestern part of Iran. This study aimed to evaluate the edematogenic potency of the crude venom with intraplantar injection into mice. Additionally, the inhibitory effects of three different drugs (i.e., promethazine, dexamethasone, and piroxicam) on paw edema were examined. Moreover, the gelatinase activity of this venom was assessed using the zymography method. Paw edema was induced by the intraplantar injection of different concentrations of the venom (0.5-5 μg dissolved in 50 μl of normal saline) into the mice (six in each group). It was estimated through the measurement of the increase in the paw thickness (%) with a digital caliper. The paws were pretreated and the rate of changes was measured after the venom injection. Pathological findings in the treated paws were evaluated with hematoxylin and eosin staining. Paw thickness reached its maximum amount within 5 min and resolved after 1 h. This venom had no gelatinase activity using the zymography method ruling out its role in edema. It caused non-hemorrhagic diffuse edema with the infiltration of inflammatory cells (i.e., leukocytes and lymphocytes) in the dermis. Intraperitoneal pretreatment with drugs significantly inhibited the venom-induced (1 μg/paw) edema; however, all the mice died unexpectedly a day after piroxicam injection. This in vitro and in vivo preliminary study demonstrated for the first time that N. oxiana venom-induced non-hemorrhagic edema in a short time. Dexamethasone (phospholipase A2 inhibitor; 1 mg/kg) and promethazine (H1 inhibitor; 5 mg/kg) decreased the venom-induced edema (p

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Hydatidosis is an important zoonosis caused by a parasitic tapeworm, namely Echinococcus granulosus. This infection is distributed worldwide and affects the health as well as economic loss in both humans and animals. In most cases, the disease needs chemotherapy with or without surgery. Conventional drugs have some major problems, including drug complications, harmful side effects, and also progressive resistance. According to the importance of biological productions as alternative medicine, a large number of studies confirmed that whole venom and many peptide ingredients of the scorpion venom have various different medical benefits, including antimicrobial properties, due to the mechanism of blocking gated ion channel. In this study, the venom peptides of Mesobuthus eupeus scorpionwere purified using gel filtration chromatography and subsequently ion exchange chromatography, followed by the determination of the molecular weights of the proteins by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) procedure. After collecting the hydatid cysts fluids from the liver of infected sheep, protoscolices were derived, washed, and encountered to the whole venom as well as eight different fractions of toxin 30, 60, 120, and 240 min after the exposure. In the next step, the viability of protoscolices was determined by eosin staining. The obtained results revealed that a venom fraction under 10 kDa killed all protoscolices after 30 min. Moreover, it was found that the scolicidal activity of fractions increases according to the time of exposure. As a result, it can be concluded that M. epeus venom peptides under its LD50 (1/2 LD50) can properly and quickly destroy the protoscolices of hydatid cysts at the level of applied concentrations and such components are good alternatives to treat hydatidosis.

Bees defend themselves by stinging and injecting a venom into their victims; bee venom is a complex mixture of chemicals including the polypeptide melittin which is mainly responsible for triggering the pain of the sting.

Les rhabdomyolyses d'origine toxique sont fréquentes. Plusieurs produits peuvent en être responsables (médicaments, drogues, alcool, monoxyde de carbone, venins, etc.) par une toxicité directe ou indirecte. Le diagnostic est clinicobiologique. Les complications sont multiples et la prise en charge thérapeutique vise principalement la prévention de ces complications, électrolytiques et rénales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Euchambersia mirabilis is unique amongst Permo-Triassic therapsids because it has an external maxillary fossa associated with a ridged canine. This anatomy led to the commonly accepted conclusion that the fossa accommodated a venom gland, which would make Euchambersia the earliest known venomous land vertebrate. Indeed, Euchambersia is considered to be the most robustly supported case of an extinct venomous species and serves as a model for infering envenoming capacity in fossil species. Here, a review of the literature on Euchambersia, with special emphasis on canine morphology, shows that this hypothesis is often based on inaccurate drawings of the canine and, for post-1986 authors, it is even based on the assumption that the canine of Euchambersia is grooved, whereas it is actually only ridged. This does not invalidate the venomous therocephalian hypothesis, but nevertheless emphasizes the critical importance of first hand observations of original material for any type of work in vertebrate paleontology. This review offers an interesting example of how observations and the resulting scientific hypotheses interact, grow, and can reciprocally influence each other.

The chitosan nanoparticles used widely as a drug delivery systems recently. In the present study the Echis carinataus snake venom loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared based on ionic gelation of tripolyphosphate and chitosan. The nanoparticles physicochemical characteristics, stability and biological activity of encapsulated venom were studied. The particles were spherical in shape and the tripolyphosphoric groups of TPP were linked to the ammonium groups of chitosan. Optimum particle size of chitosan and venom loaded nanoparticles were 89 and 116 nm, respectively. Optimum loading capacity and loading efficiency obtained by 500 µg/ml concentration of venom. The biological activity of venom remained intact during nanoparticle formation and showed no considerable reduction in stability analysis. Our results suggested that Chitosan nanoparticles, which prepared in this work possibly, could be used as an alternative for traditional adjuvants.

Résumé Introduction Les araignées Loxosceles sont ubiquitaires et responsables de nombreux cas d’envenimation dans le monde. L’espèce rufescens est présente dans les régions PACA et Occitanie en France. Au cours de l’été 2015, nous avons dû faire face à de nombreux cas de morsures par Loxosceles rufescens ayant entraîné d’importantes nécroses tégumentaires dont le tableau et l’évolution singuliers nous paraissaient importants à exposer. Matériel et méthodes Nous rapportons les cas de neuf patientes ayant présenté une morsure d’araignée dans la période estivale de l’année 2015 dans le Languedoc Roussillon. Résultats Sur neuf patientes, huit patientes ont présenté une nécrose cutanée et cinq ont nécessité une prise en charge chirurgicale. Cinq patientes ont eu de la fièvre et cinq ont eu des signes généraux autres à type d’asthénie importante, douleurs articulaires, nausées et vertiges. La CRP était normale ou très peu élevée chez toutes les patientes. Enfin, cinq patientes sur neuf ont déclaré avoir une douleur résiduelle au niveau du site de morsure. Discussion L . rufescens est une petite araignée possédant un venin cytotoxique. Le diagnostic de loxoscélisme est le plus souvent fait par élimination devant une lésion cutanée nécrotique. Des cas de loxoscélisme systémique ont été décrits avec pour certaines espèces américaines des issues fatales. Le traitement reste très controversé avec diverses options : chirurgie, antibiotiques, antihistaminiques, antivenin. Conclusion Le diagnostic de loxocélisme cutané doit être fait dans des régions endémiques devant une nécrose tégumentaire d’allure infectieuse rapidement évolutive associé à des signes généraux atypiques, insensible au traitement antibiotique. Summary Introduction Loxosceles spiders are ubiquitous and responsible for many cases of envenomation in the world. The kind rufescens is present in the Provence and Occitan regions in France. During the summer 2015, we faced many Loxosceles rufescens cases of bites having led to extensive integumental necrosis whose features and singular evolution seems important to report. Material and methods We report the cases of nine patients who experienced a spider bite in the summer of 2015 in the Languedoc Roussillon. Results Of nine patients, eight patients had skin necrosis and five required surgical care. Five patients had a fever and had five other general signs such as important asthenia, joint pain, nausea and dizziness. CRP was very low normal in all patients. Finally, five of the nine patients reported a residual pain. Discussion L . rufescens is a small spider (7 to 15 mm in diameter) having a cytotoxic venom. Loxoscelism diagnosis is usually made by removing a front necrotic skin lesion. Of systemic loxoscelism that have been described, some American species had fatal outcomes. The treatment remains controversial with various options: surgery, antibiotics, antihistaminics, antivenom. Conclusion The diagnosis must be made in endemic areas when confronted to a necrosic integumentary infectious rapidly progressive, unresponsive to antibiotic treatment associated with atypical general signs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, chitosan nanoparticles have been studied widely for protein delivery. In this study, Hemiscorpius lepturus (HL) venom was encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles. The aim of the present work was to carry out a systematic study for preparing biocompatible and biodegradable nanoparticles for loading HL scorpion venom and to evaluate their potential as an antigen delivery system. In this study, HL venom loaded chitosan nanoparticles fabricated by ionic gelation of chitosan and tripolyphosphate and the factors which may be influenced in the preparation of nanoparticles were analyzed. Also, their physicochemical properties and in vitro release behavior were studied. The optimum encapsulation efficiency and capacity were observed when the chitosan concentration and HL venom were 2mg/ml and 500µg/ml, respectively. The HL venom loaded nanoparticles were in the size range of 130-160nm (polydispersity index values of 0.423) and exhibited the positive zeta potential. Transmission electron microscope imaging showed spherical and smooth surface of nanoparticles. The profiles of the release exhibited a burst releases about 50% in the first 4 hr and then slowed down at a constant rate. The obtained results suggested that the chitosan nanoparticles prepared in this work had the potential for antigen delivery.

Conventional treatment of Naja naja oxiana (NNO) envenoming requires large volumes of equine antivenin raised against NNO crude venom. The poor efficiency of this antivenin is assumed to be due to the high molecular weight non-toxic proteins, a strong immunogen, present in the crude venom. These proteins cause depression of antibody formation against the low molecular weight toxic components of venom. In the present study the low molecular weight lethal components were isolated from crude venom of NNO venom by sephadex G50 get filtration chromatography. A sera was prepared by immunizing horses with toxic fraction. One milliliter of this serum neutralized 1.8mg of NNO crude venom. This high titer antivenin is thus 2.2 times more potent than the sera obtained against NNO crude venom.

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Summary: Adder bites and their progression to severe envenomations are more frequent in children than in adults. Aim: To describe the clinical, biological, and therapeutic characteristics of children bitten by adders and to identify risk factors associated with severe envenomations corresponding to grades II and III of the Audebert et al. classification (Toxicon 1992). Material and methods: A retrospective study was conducted between 2001 and 2009 in the pediatric emergency department of a tertiary children''s hospital. The data collected were: age and sex of children; day and time of admission; day, time, and circumstances of the accident; snake identification; bite location; envenomation severity based on the Audebert et al. classification; presence of fang marks; prehospital care; use of specific immunotherapy (Viperfav®), associated treatments; length of stay; orientation, progression, and any complications. Results: Fifty-eight children were included (43 boys, 15 girls). The mean age was 7.8±4.1 years (range, 1.8–15 years). Bites occurred more often between 12:00 pm and 6:00 pm (62%), and were most often located in the lower extremities (77%). The classification of envenomation was: 83% low grade (grade 0, absence of envenomation, fang marks present; grade I, minor envenomation) and 17% high grade (grades II and III, moderate and severe envenomations). All high-grade envenomations received specific immunotherapy (Viperfav® F(ab’)2 fragments against Vipera aspis, Vipera berus, and Vipera ammodytes). The mean time from bite to Viperfav® injection was 23±11h (range, 8–36h). Being bitten on the upper extremities (p <0.001), during the afternoon (p =0.025), feeling an immediate violent pain (p =0.037), and high initial glycemia (p =0.016) were associated with a significant risk of progressing to high-grade envenomation. There was no significant correlation between age, gender, and upper extremity bite. In the final model of the multivariate statistical analysis, three factors remained associated with this risk: bite location in the upper extremities (relative risk [RR]=60.5 [3.5–1040[; p =0.005), immediate violent pain (RR=21.5 [1.3–364.5[; p =0.03), and female gender (RR=17.5 [0.9–320.3[; p =0.053). Conclusion: A certain number of criteria seem related with a more significant risk of progression to high-grade envenomation following an adder bite. These results need to be studied on a larger cohort of patients. Bites to the upper extremities should be handled with caution because of the association with more severe envenomation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Résumé À notre connaissance, aucun des traitements immédiats des piqûres d’insectes autres que les traitements conventionnels n’est validé par des études scientifiques probantes, encore moins par des méta-analyses. Et pourtant, sur le web, il existe des « conseils » aussi nombreux que curieux. La plupart font partie des croyances et recettes populaires, associées à l’intérêt croissant pour les « médecines douces ». Les seules actions qui peuvent rendre service semblent être : (i) l’inactivation du venin par une source de chaleur simple ; (ii) l’ablation du dard et l’aspiration du venin avec un dispositif adapté. Quelques heures après la piqûre, s’il existe une inflammation locale, l’application de froid (glace) peut se justifier, mais, dans la mesure où le venin est thermolabile pas au début. Quant aux conseils que l’on trouve sur le web qui traduisent la diversité des croyances populaires, nous souhaiterions que les lecteurs nous en adressent d’autres que nous ne connaissons pas pour « améliorer notre collection ». To our knowledge, no immediate treatments for insect stings other than the conventional treatments have been validated by convincing scientific studies, even less by meta-analyses. And yet, on the web, there are numerous and even curious “recommendations”. Most of them are among popular beliefs and recipes, associated with a growing interest in non-conventional medicine. The only actions that might render service appear to be: (i) inactivation of the venom by application of a simple source of heat; (ii) removal of the sting and aspiration of the venom with an appropriate device. If local inflammation continues to be present several hours after the sting, then local application of cold (ice cubes) would be justified, but not in the first minutes after the sting because the venom is thermolabile. As for recommendations that one finds on the web which reveal the diversity of popular beliefs, we would hope that the readers would address to others whom we do not know in order to “ameliorate our collection”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Phytothérapie is the property of John Libbey Eurotext Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract: Snake bites are responsible for a high mortality rate in Africa. Problems for the early care of the victims are many. We published three observations of Moroccan typical viperin severe envenomings (rapidly extensive edema, necrosis, haemorrhagic shock) are presented. The overall mortality of those bites is 4%. In the Maghreb, viperin syndromes are the result of the lebetin viper (Vipera lebetina), the horned viper or sand viper (Cerastes cerastes), sometimes Bitis or Echis sp. Immunotherapy remains effective against haemorrhage, even when administered late, in severe disease (bleeding). Death remains inevitable if antivenin is not being administered or if it is at the stage of multiorgan failure. Heparin is contra-indicated in the acute context, but at distance from the bite, the persistence of inflammatory syndrome can cause phlebitis or pulmonary embolism. Fresh frozen plasma and corticosteroids are ineffective and unnecessary. Signs of gravity are rapidly extensive swelling and systemic manifestations, particularly bleeding. The severity of poisoning is related to the difficulties of access to health centers, the use of traditional medicine for more than half of the victims, the lack of training of caregivers, finally and most importantly, the lack of antivenomous serum,that is not within reach of prescribing at the appropriate places and times. Despite its cost and allergic risk (become rare with the current serums), immunotherapy which is the only weapon effective against the venom, should be part of emergency essential drugs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Envenomation from bite of exotic snakes is rare in France and represent a serious therapeutic problem: only an adapted antivenom is effective and obtaining such a treatment is a real difficulty. The authors report two clinical cases of envenomation with defibrination after bite by pit vipers from South America. The two patients were treated with nonspecific antivenom therapy with divergent results. The use of the paraspecific effects of antivenom can allow an effective treatment in the absence of specific antivenom, but requires to be known better. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Many snakes are able to quickly immobilize prey, thanks to their venom neurotoxins. Most of these snakes belong to families Elapidae or Hydrophidae but neurotoxins were also isolated from families Viperidae and Colubridae. Ophidian neurotoxins can be classified into several categories: neurotoxins which inhibit synaptic transmission (postsynaptic and presynaptic neurotoxins) and neurotoxins which facilitate it excessively (dendrotoxin and fasciculin). Their toxicity is dose-dependent, and venom effects are extremely fast. The clinical feature is a potentially fatal neurological syndrome, the so called cobraic syndrome. Because death by respiratory arrest may occur quickly with cobraic syndrome, immunotherapy is a true emergency, because toxins irreversible fixing makes immunotherapy effect uncertain after a few hours passed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Various haemostasis disorders can occur following snakebite. Almost all ophidian species that are responsible for serious, even lethal, human envenomations are concerned. Venoms of these snakes are rich in proteins interfering with haemostasis, including many enzymes. These proteins can be classified in four groups according to their action. The haemorrhagins induce capillary permeability disorders. The proteins disturbing the primary haemostasis can activate as well as inhibit platelets: phospholipases A2, serine proteases and metalloproteinases, L-amino-acido-oxydases, phosphoesterases, disintegrins, C-type lectins, dendropeptin, agregoserpentin, thrombolectin. The proteins interfering with coagulation are separated into procoagulant proteases (prothrombin activator, thrombin-like enzymes, factor X and factor V activators) and anticoagulant proteases (factor IX and X inhibitors, protein C activator, anticoagulant phospholipases A2). The venom components acting on fibrinolysis are the fibrinolytic enzymes and the plasminogene activators. The clinical consequence of these mechanisms is a local as well as diffuse haemorrhagic syndrome. A hypofibrinogenemy, even an afibrinogenemy is frequently noted. Other haemostasis parameters are disturbed: PT collapse, a patient''s ACT several times higher than the control and non-systematic thrombopenia. Ophidian venoms take part in many medical, diagnostic or therapeutic, applications in medicine. Currently, the antivenomous immunotherapy is the only efficient treatment in these haemorrhagic disorders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Scorpion envenoming is less studied in pregnant victims. In this work, the effect of Buthus occitanus tunetanus on parturition in late pregnancy was studied in an animal model. Four groups of six primigravid female rats, each one at the 22nd day of pregnancy, were used. The first two groups had received an intra-peritoneal injection of 500 μg/kg of Buthus occitanus tunetanus crude venom or a physiological saline solution and left until foetal delivery. Then, the time elapsed until the first pup delivery and that separating the first and latest ones were measured. The other two groups served for the uterine electrophysiological activity exploration. Rats were anaesthetized, artificially ventilated and had received an intraperitoneal injection of 500 μg/kg of Buthus occitanus tunetanus crude venom or a physiological saline solution. Our results showed a significant increase of the latency to foetal delivery, labour time, and uterine contractile activity in envenomed rats compared to controls. Such signs are usually seen in dynamic dystocia. It was concluded that Buthus occitanus tunetanus envenoming might induce a dynamic dystocia, when it occurred in late pregnancy. To cite this article: H. Ben Nasr et al., C. R. Biologies 330 (2007). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fifty injuries by stingrays are annually examined in the New Caledonia hospital. The injuries occur most often in the lower extremity, rare puncture injuries to the thorax or abdomen can cause death. The wound is associated with envenomation. The pain is intense with oedema, cyanosis, erythema often followed by tissue necrosis. In many cases, the management of stingray wounds is inadequate and the gravity often not well appreciated. Localized morbidity and prolonged healing may occur without an effective surgical management. Wound exploration and debridement are particularly indicated after first-aid measures, such as immersion in hot water. The characteristics, treatment and prevention are discussed in connection with two cases. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

There is a considerable potential to improve both diagnosis and immunotherapy in patients allergic to hymenoptera venoms. Among available diagnostic procedures, the basophil activation test appears interesting owing to its high specificity and sensitivity. This test is, however, expensive and without predictive value with regard to the protection induced by immunotherapy. Estimation of IL10 in lymphocyte cultures stimulated with the allergen may be more informative in this situation. An elevated basal serum tryptase level is a risk factor for particularly severe anaphylactic reactions and hence an indication for prolonged immunotherapy. Diagnostic tests with a cocktail of the major recombinant venom allergens have superior specificity compared to tests with the whole venom. Recombinant modified allergens or T cell epitope peptides no longer react with B cell epitopes of specific IgE while their reactivity with T cell epitopes is conserved. They will induce fewer side effects but they still be effective for immunotherapy. A reduction of side effects during the initial phase of immunotherapy can also be achieved by pre-medication with antihistamines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]