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There has been considerable scholarly interest in the relationship between language and national identity. The topic is vast and multi-faceted, but in this paper we are especially interested in the manner in which the perceived interdependence between ‘mother tongue’ and ‘fatherland’ has often prompted policies intended to protect the former, and therefore the latter, of whatever was regarded as harmful influence. In particular, we intend to survey some lexicographical work undertaken in Great Britain and (what is now) Romania between the middle of the 18th century and the beginning of the 20th century in order to compare decisions on prescriptivism or descriptivism in dictionaries, and the reasons behind them. While some background information will be necessary, our main focus will be the language metaphors which lexicographers and other people who brought a contribution to dictionary making resorted to in order to support their arguments in favour of or against prescriptivism/descriptivism.

Moral purism is the view that doing evil is never allowed, even as a means to prevent a greater evil. This article assesses two main versions of moral purism and shows that they are implausible. The first version claims that it is always impermissible to choose an option that results in a bad states of affairs, while the second version claims that it is always impermissible to choose an option that is wrong, even if it is only prima facie wrong. I contend that both versions are incomplete, in the sense that they are unable to provide practical guidance for cases in which all available options result in bad states of affairs, or in which all available options are prima facie wrong.

Попович М. Голос женщины в истории французской филологии. Цель исследования - высветлить филологические взгляды одной из самых эрудированных и последовательных оппонентов пуристкого обновления французского языка эпохи классицизма мадемуазель Мари Ле Жар де Гурнэ, изложенные ею в четырех рассмотренных в статье трактатах. Для достижения поставленной цели, в статье использован ряд общенаучных методов, выбор которых основывается на полипарадигмальном методологическом подходе, согласно которому объект исследования является отражением авторского мировоззрения, которое сформировалось под влиянием определенных историко-культурных процессов и определило концептуальную основу мышления автора. Такой подход обусловил выбор релевантных методов и приемов. Основополагающими из них есть метод лингвистического наблюдения, который используется для получения первичной информации о предмете исследования, описательноаналитический, который помог провести качественный анализ предмета исследования и метод интепретационно-текстовый, который был задействован для глубинного анализа содержания авторских интенций. Применены также методические приемы систематизации, обобщения, описания и сопоставления. Научная новизна разведки заключается в том, что отечественная романистика впервые знакомится с филологическими трудами выдающегося французского филолога конца XVI - начала XVI веков Мари де Гурнэ, которая выступала против многих лингвистических новшеств, жестко навязываемых французскому языку реформаторами во главе с Малербом. Выводы. Трактаты Мари де Гурнэ проливают свет на широкий круг вопросов функционирования французского языка конца XVI - начала XVII веков, поэтому обстоятельное изучение этих работ имеет незаурядное значение не только для лучшего понимания истории развития французского языка, но и для лучшего понимания того, как создавались основы поэтической творчества будущих писателей и поэтов Франции.Popovych M. Woman’s Voice in the History of the French Philology. The study presents philological views of one of the most intelligent and consistent opponents of the puristic renewal of the French language in the classical age, i.e. of Mademoiselle Marie Le Jars de Gournay. This self-dictatorial woman owing to her perseverance and natural abilities studied Latin and Greek independently having thus opened up for herself an access to ancient sources of knowledge in various humanitarian fields. Knowledge acquired by tireless work formed her as an extraordinary, creatively thinking person who enjoyed undeniable authority among the educated people of those times. Marie de Gournay 's writing talent and deep analytical mind gained public recognition and were highly appreciated by many intellectuals not only in France but also in Europe. Noteworthy in this regard is the ascertained historical fact that Michel Montaigne, the renowned thinker of the Renaissance, regarded her as his daughter, and even entrusted her with the reprint of his works both during his lifetime and after his death. Marie de Gournay’s years of life and her writings were in the period when the French language was establishing itself as the official state language. Her ideological beliefs were formed under the influence of the ideals of humanism of the Renaissance and of the artistic values of the age of Classicism. Adhering to the humanistic principles of the artists of the XVI century Marie de Gournay vehemently fought against many linguistic innovations that were persistently imposed on the society by reformers led by Malherbe. Due to her uncompromising position on the methods of linguistic reform, many lexical and grammatical units were preserved in the French language the withdrawal of which was urged by the supports of Malherbe. Marie de Gournay’s treatises shed light on a wide range of 16 Ibid, P. 427. 17 Feugère L . Les femmes poètes au XVIe siècle, Léon Feugère, Paris : Didier et Ci e, Libraires-Éditeurs, 1860, Р. 192 –193; 222 – 224. 18 Gournay M.(de) , Les Advis, ou les Presens de la Demoiselle de Gournay, Marie de Gournay, 3i ème éd. augmentée, revue et corrigée, Paris : J. Du Bray, M. DC.XLI (1641), P. 399. 166 Попович М. Голос жінки в історії французької філології... issues of the functioning of French at the end of the XVI and the beginning of the XVIII centuries and prove that the process of language normalization, which is connected with Malherbe’s reformist activity and later with the similar activities of the French Academy, founded in 1634, was not an easy one. The article briefly reviews the contents of four of eight treatises written by Gournay in which the author examines various controversial issues in philology. All of them were in the collection of works published first in 1626 under the name “L’Ombre de la demoiselle de Gournay”. The author changed the first title into “Les Advisou les presens de la mademoiselle de Gournay” in the second (1634) and third (1641) editions.

This article analyses some metalinguistic comments posted by users on seven Belgian news websites in French. Comments are a space the public uses to express its criticisms of and views about journalists: we propose here an approach to social speech concerning journalists’ language. Selected via three systematic requests (on belgicisme, anglicisme and langue française), our examples show that web users react to different types of “mistakes” and in teract about them, but also present journalists as “inadequate models”. Finally, we suggest that ther e is an affiliation between online news comments and traditional columns on language usage: even thou gh it is a more open space for discussion, online comments are shown to uphold purist discourse w ith regard to language in the media.

Colour and the visual are central to the works of the American writer Gilbert Sorrentino (1929-2006). Like the modernist poets, Sorrentino was inspired by the visual arts, which allow for a more direct interpretation of the world, whereas words, being more abstract and arbitrary, tend to impose a certain distance from experience. But can language render the notion of colour as it is expressed in the visual arts? Painters have direct access to the whole colour spectrum by mixing primary colours in a way that the discreteness of the written word forbids. Sorrentino chooses to accept and further to radicalize this limitation. When qualifying red objects he avoids specific terms such as “vermilion” or “scarlet” and keeps to the generic word “red,” which encompasses all the shades of red. Its sensory impact evokes the pure and primary colours of modern painting. Sorrentino thus rejects compromise, an attitude which verges on modernist purism.

While purism seems to be based largely on mythical conceptions of language, it is nevertheless a widespread tendency. While the phenomenon is well known in the case of languages newly promoted to the rank of national languages after having been kept in the shadow of a more prestigious language, Victorian English was also the subject of projects aimed at purging it of non-Germanic influences. The undertaking met with little success though. This was due as much to the internal contradictions of the language reformers as to the lack of interest shown by the language's users, an essential condition for the success of such a project.

Abstract: The lexicographical presentation of terms from the field of language planning often lacks clear and unambiguous distinction and proper explanation. Too often dictionaries even fail to include these terms in the lemma list, and some central terms have not been treated in any general or special purpose dictionary. This article utilises results from research in the field of language policy to make suggestions for the lexicographical presentation and treatment of a number of relevant terms. The emphasis on a distinction between language policy as applied to the intralingual and the interlingual level and the motivation for the introduction of the notion of a communication policy should help lexicographers to give a more comprehensive account of terms from this field and it will also benefit scholars in the field of language policy. A second aspect of this article is the discussion of ways in which dictionaries participate in the implementation of language policy. It is indicated that lexicographers make ever so many decisions of a language political nature. In this regard the lexicographical influence of issues like linguistic hegemony and language purism are discussed. Suggestions are also made for future lexicographical procedures.Keywords: COMMUNICATION POLICY, INTERLINGUAL, INTRALINGUAL, LANGUAGEPLANNING, LANGUAGE POLICY, LANGUAGE PROMOTION, LEXICOGRAPHY,LINGUISTIC HEGEMONY, PRESCRIPTIVE, PURISMOpsomming: Hoe om taalbeleid met woordeboeke te bepaal. Die leksikografieseaanbieding van terme uit die veld van taalbeplanning kort dikwels duidelike en ondubbelsinnigeonderskeiding en behoorlike verklaring. Woordeboeke laat te dikwels na om hierdie terme indie lemmalys in te sluit, en sommige kernterme word in geen algemene of vakwoordeboek behandelnie. Hierdie artikel benut resultate van navorsing op die terrrein van taalbeplanning om voorstellete maak vir die leksikografiese aanbieding en behandeling van 'n aantal relevante terme. Dieklem op die onderskeid tussen taalbeleid soos dit toegepas word op die intratalige en intertaligevlak en die motivering van die invoering van die idee van 'n kommunikasiebeleid behoort leksikograwete help om 'n meer omvattende verslag te bied van terme vanuit hierdie veld en dit sal ooknavorsers op die terrein van taalpolitiek bevoordeel. 'n Tweede aspek van hierdie artikel is diebespreking van maniere waarop woordeboeke deelneem aan die implementering van taalpolitiek.Daar word aangedui dat leksikograwe talle besluite van 'n taalpolitieke aard neem. In hierdie verbandword die leksikografiese invloed op kwessies soos linguistiese hegemonie en taalpurismebespreek. Voorstelle word ook gemaak vir toekomstige leksikografiese werkswyses.Sleutelwoorde: INTERTALIG, INTRATALIG, KOMMUNIKASIEBELEID, LEKSIKOGRAFIE,LINGUISTIESE HEGEMONIE, PRESKRIPTIEF, PURISME, TAALBELEID, TAALBEPLANNING,TAALBEVORDERING

ABSTRACT: The influence of foreign languages in Sesotho sa Leboa, or Northern Sotho, results in borrowing, which ultimately leads to an increase in the vocabulary of Sesotho sa Leboa. The languages influencing developments in the vocabulary of Sesotho sa Leboa include, inter alia, English, Afrikaans, Xitsonga, Tshivend√a and the Nguni languages. This article aims to give a critical analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the adoption of foreign lexical items in the lemmatization of vocabulary in Sesotho sa Leboa dictionaries. Most puristic inclined academics and intellectuals are reluctant to adopt loan words as a means of developing the Sesotho sa Leboa vocabulary. When confronted with borrowing, the purists usually prefer coinage, using indigenous lexical items to name foreign concepts. This is disadvantageous to the development of the vocabulary of the language because (1) there is no increase in the number of the lexical items in the language since only the meanings of the foreign lexical item are added to existing indigenous lexical items, and (2) in most cases, previously adopted loan words are mistaken for indigenous lexical items and given preference to newly acquired lexical items which have direct and accurate bearing on the meaning of the newly discovered or designed concepts or objects.OPSOMMING: Ontlening en leenwoorde: Die lemmatisering van nuutverworwe leksikale items in Sesotho sa Leboa. Die invloed van vreemde tale op Sesotho sa Leboa, of Noord-Sotho, het ontlening tot gevolg, wat uiteindelik lei tot 'n toename in die woordeskat van Sesotho sa Leboa. Die tale wat ontwikkelinge in die woordeskat van Sesotho sa Leboa beïnvloed, sluit onder andere Engels, Afrikaans, Xitsonga, Tsivend√a en die Ngunitale in. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om 'n kritiese ontleding van die voordele en nadele van die oorneem van vreemde leksikale items by die lemmatisering van die woordeskat in woordeboeke van Sesotho sa Leboa te gee. Die meeste puristies gesinde akademici en intellektuele is onwillig om leenwoorde oor te neem as 'n manier om die woordeskat van Sesotho sa Leboa te ontwikkel. Wanneer hulle met ontlening gekonfronteer word, verkies puriste gewoonlik nuutskeppinge deur gebruikmaking van inheemse leksikale items om vreemde konsepte te benoem. Dit is nadelig vir die ontwikkeling van die woordeskat van die taal omdat (1) daar geen toename in die aantal leksikale items is nie aangesien slegs die betekenisse van die vreemde leksikale items tot die bestaande inheemse leksikale items toegevoeg word, en (2) in die meeste gevalle voorheen oorgeneemde leenwoorde aangesien word vir inheemse leksikale items en daaraan voorkeur gegee word bo nuutverworwe leksikale items wat 'n direkte en presiese verband met die betekenis van die nuutontdekte of -ontwerpte konsepte of objekte het.Sleutelwoorde: ONTLENING, LEENWOORDE, LEKSIKALE ITEMS, VREEMDE AANWINSTE, VREEMDE WOORDE, NUUTSKEPPING, NUUTGESKEPTE LEKSIKALE ITEMS, PURISME, STANDAARDTAAL, STANDAARDISERING, LEMMATISERING, ONTWIKKELDE TALE, KORPUSSE

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This article explores the ways in which different language ideologies manifest themselves in the English agrégation (competitive exam) in France, showing how they contribute to the construction of the (socio)linguistic object named “English” in this context. Bringing together tools from sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology and discourse analysis, I analyse a corpus of Agrégation jury reports and show how native-speakerism, national, standard language and raciolinguistic ideologies, as well as ideologies of coherence and purism, all play a role in shaping a set of ideal(ised) models of English – and thus of English speakers – in this context. The article concludes by suggesting that, given the influence of the Agrégation in France, the phenomena observed here may contribute to elaborating what goes by the name of “English” in French education, and in France, more generally.