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Using New France as a case study, this article attempts to understand how an imperial formation was constructed in the 17th and 18th centuries. If New France was affected by an imperial dynamic in the 17th and 18th centuries, it was in the sense that the French enterprise of domination was carried out in a highly adaptive diplomatic framework, that of alliances with the Native Americans. New France was built through a cartography that valued Native ethnonyms, the existence of mobile diplomatic capitals, and the organization of military expeditions that relied on the implementation of several alliance networks over vast distances.

La metrópolis de Brest es una ciudad universitaria con una población de 215.000 habitantes, de los cuales unos 30.000 son estudiantes. Sin embargo, no es la típica ciudad estudiantil y su estatus de metrópolis cultural tiene que reforzarse. Se han establecido políticas culturales y las actividades militares se han eliminado de forma progresiva, por lo que la ciudad ha sufrido una metamorfosis. Desde principios de la década 2000, Brest ha pasado de ser una ciudad naval de clase obrera, construida alrededor del arsenal, a una ciudad más académica y cultural. Los marcos nacionales han determinado en gran medida las políticas culturales aplicadas, las cuales se basan en iniciativas locales y dinámicas. Las instituciones culturales de Brest (organizaciones públicas y sin ánimo de lucro) son cada vez más reconocidas a nivel nacional y europeo. Palabras clave: políticas culturales; universidad; metrópolis; marcos nacionales; dinámica local. Cultural Policies in a Small University Metropolis: National Frameworks and Local Dynamics in the City of Brest Abstract: Brest metropolis is a university town with some 30,000 students out of a population of 215,000 inhabitants. However, it is not truly a typical student city and its status of cultural metropolis still needs to be strengthened. Cultural policies have been put in place alongside the gradual withdrawal of the city’s military activities and this has boosted the city’s metamorphosis. Since the early 2000s, Brest has evolved from a working-class, naval city, built around its arsenal, to a more academic and cultural city. The implemented cultural policies, that are based on dynamic local initiatives, are strongly shaped by national frameworks. Brest’s cultural institutions (non-profits and public organizations) are increasingly gaining national and European recognition. Keywords: cultural policies; university; metropolis; national frameworks; local dynamics. Artículo recibido: 14/10/2021. Revisado: 19/10/2021. Aceptado: 28/10/2021

This article is based on the premise that an insightful reconstruction of the specific cultural world of American Indians allows a clearer, more in-depth understanding of North American history as a whole. To illustrate our perspective, we examine a concept of geographical and cultural space denoted as “Indian country.” As a case study, we focus our analysis on tribes of the central and northern Plains between 1800 and 1870. Taking the view from this Indian country and using sources produced by Indian people themselves, such as the 1806 Arikara map of Too-Ne, it becomes easier to understand how Plains people envisioned territory and social groupings in their own ways. The confrontation between Indians and Europeans was fueled by mutual misconceptions of land ownership and social and political institutions. From Indian countries, we learn that some categories that seemed common to Euro-Americans, such as tribe or nation, chief, race, and métissage, were not universal categorizations that were understood in North America during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and that they need to be historicized. In this regard, the colonial conquest was not only territorial but was a way in which new social meanings and practices were created.

Effects of Minimum Tillage on the Flexibility of the Agricultural Calendar and on Maize Yields in the Sudanese Region of Burkina Faso. The spatial and temporal variations, the sporadic rains and drought pockets make unpredictable the installation of crops after plowing in the current technical system. The aim of our study was to evaluate, in real conditions of farming, the effect of the minimum tillage on the flexibility of the agricultural calendar at the beginning of the rainy season and on the maize yield. We compared the minimum tillage (MT) on dry soil and the conventional tillage (CT) on moist soil. These treatments were installed on plots by 23 farmers in 2010 and by 17 farmers in 2011. The results show a diversity in farmers practice. Overall, MT provides yields and gross margins equivalent to those of conventional tillage. MT makes it possible to achieve early planting and take advantage of the first useful rains. However, MT induced a non-significant (p>0.05) increase in working time compared to CT. MT practiced farms using animal traction can help in better organizing the crop calendar, especially during the planting period with performances equivalent to those of conventional tillage.

Research Framework: Over the past ten years or so in France, households headed by blue collars and employees have caught up on their delay in connecting to the Internet at home. Objectives: Has the integration of the Internet in these households been carried out in the same way as in households of executives and intermediate professions who equipped themselves earlier? Does it have the same meaning? What transformations does the arrival of the Internet bring about in the domestic context and in family dynamics? Methodology: This article is based on a semi-directive interview survey (N=41) of mothers working in the personal services sector and living outside large urban areas in France. Results: The survey shows a significant tension. On the one hand, the mothers we met are convinced that the Internet is a guarantee of better academic and professional success for their children, which generates a real "duty of connection" in the name of modernity and social conformity. On the other hand, they note that the tool is time-consuming and disrupts family life both in the couple's relationships and between parents and children. Without regulatory model coming from the previous generation, they tinker with daily tactics to limit the potential for individualization of tools by establishing a principle of transparency of practices and encouraging co-attending uses. Conclusions: The regulation of the Internet in this stable fraction of the working classes is a model that is being sought and remains based on trial and error and compromise. However, the priority given to family ties seems to be a major issue in arbitration: discourses continue to value the family "we" with great consistency, expressing, if not a reality, at least a strong aspiration. Contribution: This research highlights the specificities of family Internet regulation methods in the stable fractions of the working classes. It is also interested in couple's regulations, which are rarely studied in the existing literature.

Since the 1970s, cotton has been a driving force in the transformation of agricultural production systems and a key element in local economies in the savannah areas of West and Central Africa (WCA). However, the sustainability of cotton-based production systems is often debated because of their effects on soils and the negative impacts of chemical pest control on the environment and human health. Through drastic reforms, the WCA cotton sector overcame the crises, showing its resilience. Today, research should be mobilized to help the sector tackle the major challenges: i) economic (price volatility, producers’ incomes), ii) social (inclusion of vulnerable groups, role of women and young people, etc.) and iii) environmental (impact of pesticides, soil degradation, etc.) and linked to climate change. The articles published in this issue present some results and perspectives of research work, which can help improving the sustainability of cotton systems in WCA, open paths towards an agro-ecological transition and address the new challenges.

Adoption of Innovation Factors of Agriculture and Breeding Integration: Case of Mucuna pruriens in Western Cotton Zone of Burkina Faso. This paper analyzes the factors influencing the adoption of Mucuna pruriens in the Western cotton zone of Burkina Faso. The data were collected in 3 villages by participative data collection methods and by conducting a survey with 50 farmers involved in the development of Mucuna production techniques adapted to local farming systems characteristics. The co-construction of these techniques was carried out from 2005 to 2015 according to an action research approach in partnership. The results of the logistic regression showed that the variables which positively influence the decision to adopt are the number of workers and pit dunghills, sex, market access, experimentation of M. pruriens by farmers, the practice of animal fattening (P

Income source and accompaniment needs of family farms in the cotton growing area of West Burkina Faso. Description of the subject. In the western cotton growing area of Burkina Faso, the variability and the diversity of the income levels of family farms (EAFs) mean that these farms require suitable agronomic accompaniment. Objectives. This article gives an account of this diversity and the need for accompaniment according to the type of identified EAF. Method. The data were collected by the active method of participative research and by investigation of the practices of 120 farms in the commune of Koumbia. Principal component analyses with economic indicators of the EAF were applied, followed by an ascending hierarchical clustering. The structural characteristics, the agro-pastoral practices of production, and the perceptions of the EAF regarding the constraints and appropriateness of agricultural production were compared by variance analysis. Results. The results showed three types of farm: farms with a low-income culture (farmers with few animals), those with a high income culture (farmers with a large number of animals) and those deriving income from breeding (stockbreeders). Taking into account the structure of the farms, their production practices, their technico-economic performance and their appropriateness of agricultural production, the form of sustainable accompaniment needed may be identified in relation to several common or specific innovations of the identified farm types. Accompaniments in the case of farm stock management, and good practice in the management of soil fertility and of animals were common to the three types of EAF. The fodder culture, fattening on pasture and the method of dairy production were specific to the farmers with a large number of animals and to the stockbreeders. The improvement of the food value of culture residues and of some aspects of the maintenance of oxen were more appropriate to the farmers with few animals. Conclusion. In order to succeed, the process of accompaniment must take into account both these specificities and the concept of sustainability.

Au Mali, l’efficacité de la lutte chimique systématique (traitements calendaires) contre les ravageurs du cotonnier est régulièrement remise en cause. Des alternatives à cette lutte, comme la lutte étagée ciblée, l’intervention sur seuil et la culture biologique, visant toutes à réduire les quantités de pesticides utilisées, sont diffusées ; d’autres sont testées chez les producteurs, comme l’écimage du cotonnier. Cette étude analyse la perception de la technique de l’écimage du cotonnier par des producteurs. Elle a été conduite dans quatre villages de la zone cotonnière, à l’aide de focus groups d’hommes et de femmes et d’entretiens avec 40 producteurs ayant pratiqué ou non l’écimage. Les avantages de l’écimage identifiés par la majorité des producteurs interrogés sont : (i) une technique manuelle facile à mettre en œuvre, (ii) la diminution des risques de chute d’organes fructifères, (iii) la réduction de la hauteur des plants, s’étalant davantage (iv) une amélioration du rendement et (v) la réduction de la population des ravageurs et donc de l’utilisation des pesticides, ayant des effets positifs sur la santé humaine et l’environnement, et diminuant les coûts de production. Ses principales contraintes sont le besoin supplémentaire de main-d’œuvre et son coût par rapport à la culture de coton non écimé. Des partenariats avec les sociétés cotonnières et les organisations paysannes et la formation de leurs agents à l’écimage sont indispensables pour une adoption de cette technique à une plus large échelle.

Depuis les années 1970, le coton a été un moteur dans la transformation des systèmes de production agricole et un élément structurant des économies locales dans les savanes d’Afrique de l’Ouest et du Centre (AOC). Cependant, la durabilité des systèmes de production à base de coton est souvent mise en débat à cause de leurs effets sur les sols et des impacts négatifs de la lutte chimique sur l’environnement et la santé humaine. Au moyen de réformes drastiques, le secteur coton en AOC a surmonté les crises, montrant sa capacité de résilience. Aujourd’hui, ce secteur est confronté à des défis importants sur lesquels la recherche doit se mobiliser : (i) économiques (volatilité des prix, revenus des producteurs, bien-être des communautés), (ii) sociaux (inclusion des couches vulnérables, rôle des femmes et des jeunes, etc.) et (iii) environnementaux (santé humaine, impact des pesticides, dégradation des sols, etc.) et liés au changement climatique. Ce numéro thématique présente des résultats et perspectives de travaux de recherche pouvant contribuer à améliorer la durabilité des systèmes cotonniers en AOC, à ouvrir des pistes vers une transition agro-écologique et à faire face aux nouveaux défis.

Le Mali a quadruplé sa population entre 1960 et 2020. Cette croissance démographique implique des besoins d’accès à la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle, à la santé, à l’éducation et à l’emploi pour les primo arrivants. C’est le secteur agricole qui est sollicité par les politiques publiques pour répondre à cette demande. Quelle est la tendance démographique dans la zone cotonnière du Mali ? Quelles ont été les réponses locales face aux implications de cette croissance démographique en termes d’accès à la santé et à l’éducation ? Le présent article répond à ces questions à travers la mobilisation et l’analyse statistique et spatiale des données sur la production agricole et l’accès à la santé et à l’éducation à plusieurs échelles. Les résultats révèlent : (1) une croissance démographique supérieure à la moyenne du pays mais inégalement répartie, (2) une augmentation progressive de la quantité de céréales (maïs, mil et sorgho) par habitant liée à un accroissement de la production agricole plus rapide que celui de la population et (3) des progrès importants en matière d’accès physique aux infrastructures de santé et d’éducation. Cependant, la croissance démographique et les nouveaux défis liés à la sécurité alimentaire et à la nutrition soulèvent de nouvelles interrogations sur la capacité de l’agriculture à répondre à une demande de produits agricoles plus soutenue et diversifiée.

Socio-economic and Institutional Variables that Affect Adoption of Technical Innovations Concerning Maize Production in Western Cameroon. The low productivity of farms in sub-Saharan Africa including Cameroon is due among others to the low adoption rates of innovations developed by agricultural research. This paper is a case study of the adoption of the technical package (improved varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, mono-culture) for maize cultivation in Western Cameroon. Data from a sample of 52 farmers were analyzed using a logit model and it was found that the maize cultivated area, the market orientation of production, contact with extension services, land tenure are factors that determine the likelihood of a farmer to adopt the technical package. However, it was adopted by less than 20% of the farmers surveyed, the others adopted only one, two or three components of the package according to their specific needs and strategies. These results challenge the agricultural research and extension to adapt their proposals to the diverse needs of farmers and to explain the reasons for the non-adoption of the whole package.

In the cotton zone of Cameroon, the increasing pressure on land has led to an increase in agricultural areas and increased soil erosion caused by rainfall intensity on poorly protected soils. For the last two decades, anti-erosion plans have been disseminated, but few studies have analyzed the factors promoting their adoption. The objective of this study was to identify the factors that influenced the adoption and the adoption intensity of anti-erosion plans by farmers. A survey from the Water-Soil-Tree project involving 303 farmers was carried out in the cotton zone between 2008 and 2009. Survey data were analyzed with Tobit Model II. Results showed that among the variables studied, those that impacted on farmers’ decision to adopt anti-erosion plans were (i) their age, (ii) their perception of erosion problems, (iii) their belonging to a group (religious, ethnic), (iv) labor availability, and (v) land tenure. Factors that explained the adoption intensity by farmers were the number of years since adopting the plans and their access mode to land. The educational level did not affect the adoption nor the adoption intensity. In future actions, erosion control programs should integrate these results in their intervention methods, but also in socio-economic impact assessments.

Starting in the 1960s, programs that aimed to provide draft animal implements to farmers, located in Burkina Faso, North- Cameroon and Senegal, through import, then through local industrial manufacturers, were mainly financed by the output of peanut and cotton crops. In the 1980s and 1990s, drastic reductions in these financing system programs, particularly in Burkina Faso and Senegal, forced national industries to adjust and diversify their production tool. This situation was worsened by the devaluation of the CFA franc currency, which ended up in an increase in equipment prices. To face this brutal evolution, iron craftsmen gradually took over some of the responsibilities for maintenance and repair of draft animal equipment. Then, they started producing more or less complete draft animal equipment, using recovery raw materials to meet financial capabilities of farmers. However the sustainability of the artisanal agricultural equipment sector can only be insured if improvement of the quality of products, management and performances of workshops are guaranteed, as well as the training of craftsman groups to facilitate supply in raw materials and access to markets. In parallel, farmers’ organizations must structure and formalize members’ needs with regard to agricultural equipment.

A comparative analysis was carried out on the use of draft animal power in three contrasted situations: the groundnut basin of Senegal, North-Cameroon, and Eastern Burkina Faso. The objective was to characterize draft animal power within farms. In each situation, data were collected according to specific methods and tools, and with the collaboration of various partners, but they did not allow for comparisons between the three countries. In any case, the analysis shows that farmers’ access to animal draft is often a difficult and step by step project. The first step is the acquisition of draft animals, which can require years of effort. The introduction of animal traction leads to major changes in the production system of farmers who need to find a balance between land and energy availability, and manpower. The use of animals helps expand cultivated areas and develop crop/livestock integration. It changes the work organization and distribution, and generates new incomes. Finally, it creates new tasks related to husbandry activities, which thus lead to more expenses from farmers. At the farm level, analyses show that farmers acquire implements in various ways and therefore use various strategies in order to have access to and retain animal traction. They also confirm the central role of animal traction in the life cycle of the farms. At the village level, they show the determining role of work and land exchanges among farms in the process of animal traction acquisition. This process is at an advanced stage in the Senegalese groundnut basin and at an earlier stage in Eastern Burkina Faso and North-Cameroon. It is essential to assist these processes. Priorities must be given to the acquisition of draft animals for unequipped farmers in Eastern Burkina Faso and North-Cameroon, and to taking sustainable measures in all three countries studied, particularly in Senegal: diversified activities, technique control, area-specific innovations.

Draft animal power is being developed in Burkina Faso, Cameroon and Senegal in an evolving environment that is characterized by government disengagement from cash crops, and general liberalization of the agricultural sector. In Senegal, the level of use of draft animal equipment is stable and has been higher than 95% for the past 25 years in the groundnut basin. In North Cameroon, although its level is below 35%, the use of draft animal power has been increasing continuously as a result of support activities by the Cotton Development Corporation. In Burkina Faso, the rate of adoption of draft animal power goes up and down in the Tapoa area depending on the existence of short-term agricultural support programs and projects. Privatization of draft animal power support services, which had been taken care of by the State, has been achieved in Senegal and is under way in the other two countries. This privatization shows that iron craftspeople and traders handle as best they can supply and repairs of equipment, and animal care. However, the new service providers (financial credits, support/consultancy, veterinary services) face difficulties in adapting their offers to the demands. In the driest zones, farming conditions require early planting and weeding, as any delay can lead to significantly reduced yields. Consequently, 90% of farms in the Senegalese groundnut basin have planting and weeding implements; in the northern part of Cameroon’s cotton belt, planting implements are absent and cereals are often planted without tillage. In the more humid zones (Tapoa area in Burkina Faso and the southern part of North Cameroon), the propitious planting period lasts longer. The early rains produce weeds that must be buried by tillage using draft animal power before planting. The diversity in the use of draft animal power and the varying degrees of privatization of agricultural support services require development agencies and research institutions to adapt their programs to the changing environment.