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Negation in Sepedi is a complex matter — a variety of negative morphemes are used across complicated verbal and copulative structures and these morphemes are not interchangeable. Dictionary users in a text production situation need to be guided to the correct compilation of negative constructions. In most cases negative morphemes are not lemmatised in Sepedi paper dictionaries or if they are, the lexicographic treatment is inadequate. This paper provides an inventory of negation from which an abstraction of the negative morphemes is given. This is followed by a critical evaluation of Sepedi dictionaries and suggested model entries for lexicographic treatment of negative morphemes.

The papers collected in this volume were originally presented at an International Conference on Historical Lexicography and Lexicology organized by Julie Coleman, and meant to fill the gap created by the two International Round Table Conferences in Florence and Leyden in 1971 and 1977 respectively. The purpose of the conference was to bring together scholars and academics working in the field of historical lexicography, whether researching the history of historical dictionaries or whether compiling dictionaries with a historical point of departure. Accordingly the collection, competently edited and introduced by Julie Coleman and Anne McDermott, is arranged in two sections, reflecting the distinction between those researchers tracing the historical development of dictionaries and those practitioners faced with the problems and challenges of the compilation of historical dictionaries. The first part dealing with the history of dictionaries consists of twelve papers (two-thirds of the book), while the second part dealing with the practice of historical dictionaries consists of six papers (one-third of the book).

This volume contains a selection of papers read at the 12th International Symposium on Lexicography, held in Copenhagen from April 29 to May 1, 2004. Many topical issues are discussed, and even though the volume is arranged according to different lexicographical themes, there are also many common elements between the different papers. For example, sample articles selected for the empirical analyses on which the papers are based, often deal with the use of phraseology in different dictionaries, the finding of suitable translation equivalents in bilingual dictionaries, and the user-friendliness in dictionaries. In some cases, the participants have selected the same mainstream dictionaries for discussion, which means that these dictionaries are examined from different viewpoints, making the volume an interesting and useful reference work.

NVolume 194 of the series Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, entitled Lexicology, Semantics and Lexicography, comprises a selection of eleven academic contributions that were originally presented at the Tenth International Conference of English Historical Linguistics. The disciplinary focus of this volume of texts is the diachronics of English vocabulary, and the representation thereof in dictionaries. From a theoretical point of view prototype theory assumes a central position, and the methodological approach is mainly corpus-analytical.

The primary aim of the article is to compare the usefulness of paper and electronic versions of OALDCE7 (Wehmeier 2005) for language encoding, decoding and learning. It is explained why, in contrast to Dziemianko's (2010) findings concerning COBUILD6 (Sinclair 2008), but in keeping with her observations (Dziemianko 2011) with regard to LDOCE5 (Mayor 2009), the e-version of OALDCE7 proved to be no better for language reception, production and learning than the dictionary in book form. An attempt is made to pinpoint the micro- and macrostructural design features which make e-COBUILD6 a better learning tool than e-OALDCE7 and e-LDOCE5. Recommendations concerning further research into the significance of the medium (paper vs. electronic) in the process of dictionary use conclude the study. The secondary aim which the paper attempts to achieve is to present the status of replication as a scientific research method and justify its use in lexicography.

Ciluba is one of the four national Congolese languages spoken in the central south of the country. Since the end of the 19th century, it has acquired the status of a written language and up to the present possesses several lexicographic works of which the first, dating from 1881, is a Ciluba–German vocabulary compiled by a German explorer. Nkòngamyakù Cilubà–Mfwàlànsa is a bilingual dictionary developed by NgoSemzara Kabuta, professor of African linguistics and literature at the University of Ghent, with the triple aim of complementing and filling the gaps of the last dictionary in this genre published in 1960 by a Catholic priest, giving an account of the evolution of the language and proposing the standard form for Ciluba so that it could be used in institutional communication, especially in education. Compared with the works of predecessors, missionaries and regional officials, this new reference tool brings several innovations, mainly: the provision of a dictionary in electronic format and paper, the increase of the number of entries from 10 000 to 16 000, the use of a simple, practical and effective orthography likely to help with reading when learning the language, the significant number of parameters and justifications for each entry to make comprehension easier, the addition of a minigrammar, wholly in Ciluba, a way of contributing to the development, promotion and enriching of this language, particularly through grammatical terminology. In spite of the errors owing to its innovative character, this lexicographic work whose merit is, in various respects, unquestionable, is an answer to the call recently made to African, especially Bantu lexicographers for more comprehensive works.

ABSTRACT: Lexicographers working on finance dictionaries have not properly exploited the fast development of the Internet. This is revealed by the poor utilization of the access routes found in current Internet finance dictionaries. Consequently, users cannot effectively and efficiently find answers to their lexicographical problems. Firstly, there are Internet finance dictionaries which lack technological features and can simply be called meagre Internet dictionaries. Secondly, there are Internet finance dictionaries which utilize so many technological features that users incur high lexicographical information costs. In order to create better access routes, a sound theoretical foundation has to be established. This article shows that the implementation of the modern theory of lexicographical functions, which focuses on the users, results in a better design for future Internet finance dictionaries. With the proper theoretical basis, lexicographers will be able to create state-ofthe- art dictionaries that can provide effective and efficient solutions to lexicographical problems.OPSOMMING: Toegangsroetes van Internet- finansiële woordeboeke: Huidige oplossings en toekomstige geleenthede. Leksikograwe wat aan finansiële woordeboeke werk, het nie die vinnige ontwikkeling van die Internet behoorlik benut nie. Dit blyk uit die gebrekkige aanwending van die toegangsroetes wat in huidige Internet- finansiële woordeboeke aangetref word. Gevolglik kan gebruikers nie doeltreffend en doelmatig antwoorde kry op hul leksikografiese probleme nie. Eerstens is daar Internet- finansiële woordeboeke waarin tegnologiese kenmerke ontbreek en wat gewoon karige Internetwoordeboeke genoem kan word. Tweedens is daar Internet- finansiële woordeboeke wat so baie tegnologiese kenmerke aanwend dat gebruikers hoë leksikografiese inligtingskoste oploop. Om beter toegangsroetes te skep, moet 'n deeglike teoretiese grondslag gevestig word. Hierdie artikel toon dat die toepassing van die moderne teorie van leksikografiese funksies wat op die gebruikers fokus, lei tot 'n beter ontwerp vir toekomstige Internet- finansiële woordeboeke. Met die gepaste teoretiese basis, sal leksikograwe in staat wees om woordeboeke te skep wat die jongste tegnologie gebruik om doeltreffende en doelmatige oplossings vir leksikografiese probleme te bied.Sleutelwoorde: WOORDEBOEK, PAPIERWOORDEBOEK, INTERNETWOORDEBOEK, TSD-WOORDEBOEK, FINANSIËLE WOORDEBOEK, FINANSIËLE TERME, LEKSIKOGRAFIE, LEKSIKOGRAFIESE FUNKSIES, TEKSONTVANGS, GEBRUIKERSBEHOEFTES, GEBRUIKERSITUASIE, TOEGANGSROETES, SOEKKEUSES, LEKSIKOGRAFIESE INLIGTINGSKOSTE

South African English can be regarded as a fully-fledged variety of English which qualifies for comprehensive lexicographic treatment. This paper focuses on the presentation and treatment of South African English in A Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles. The structure of this dictionary as a carrier of texts and the way in which the editors adhere to current metalexicographic guidelines are discussed. This paper also situates the dictionary and its contribution within the broader South African lexicographic endeavour. Reference is made to other South African dictionaries in order to identify the position of this dictionary within the South African dictionary family.

The present article addresses the two contemporary Italian dictionaries of abbreviations Malossini (1999) and Righini (2001) and outlines the position of the Italian abbreviations in some other Italian dictionaries, namely the monolingual Zingarelli (2000) and Garzanti (2021) and bilingual Slovene–Italian (Šlenc 2006) and Italian–Slovene (Šlenc 1997). The aim of the paper is to give an insight into the compilation of the abbreviation dictionary entries in monolingual Italian, bilingual in tandem with the Slovene language and specialised abbreviation dictionaries; highlight the elements present within the dictionary entries; present the deficiencies in compiling and examples of good practice; with the aim of introducing the outcomes in the compilation of the bilingual Italian–Slovene dictionary entries of the Slovene Contemporary Dictionary of Abbreviations. Within the paper we present the composition of the bilingual dictionary entries giving the reader an insight into the elements of the dictionary entry, namely the usage of language and field qualifiers, articulated prepositions, i.e. preposizioni articolate (composed of prepositions and definite articles), official translations and additional descriptions.

Towards the Description of a Multi-sided Prototype Concept in Multilingual Automatic Language Generation: From Corpus via Word Embeddings to the Automatic Dictionary. The multilingual dictionary of noun valency Portlex is considered to be the trigger for the creation of the automatic language generators Xera and Combinatoria, whose development and use is presented in this paper. Both prototypes are used for the automatic generation of nominal phrases with their mono- and bi-argumental valence slots, which could be used, among others, as dictionary examples or as integrated components of future autonomous E-Learning-Tools. As samples for new types of automatic valency dictionaries including user interaction, we consider the language generators as we know them today. In the specific methodological procedure for the development of the language generators, the syntactic-semantic description of the noun slots turns out to be the main focus from a syntagmatic and paradigmatic point of view. Along with factors such as representativeness, grammatical correctness, semantic coherence, frequency and the variety of lexical candidates, as well as semantic classes and argument structures, which are fixed components of both resources, a concept of a multi-sided prototype stands out. The combined application of this prototype concept as well as of word embeddings together with techniques from the field of automatic natural language processing and generation (NLP and NLG) opens up a new way for the future development of automatically generated plurilingual valency dictionaries. All things considered, the paper depicts the language generators both from the point of view of their development as well as from that of the users. The focus lies on the role of the prototype concept within the development of the resources.

Digital applications to assist language learning are becoming increasingly popular. They typically incorporate one or two dictionaries to improve the service so that users avoid leaving the app to consult external resources. This paper deals with the two dictionaries used in a learning app for Chinese learners of English. Initially, it describes the functioning of the app as well as the two dictionaries that have different roles in the app. It then focuses on the one that is integrated into the course texts and can be activated by clicking on a word or a multiword unit. A number of deficiencies are discussed such as inconsistent treatment of words and senses, data overload, difficult access, and inconvenient location of the pop-up window that displays the lexicographical items. These deficiencies may impact negatively on the learners' motivation and the learning process in general. The paper traces the problems to the database that sustains the dictionary as well as the design of the user interfaces that filter the data offered to the users. Finally, and inspired by the classical Chinese Xun Gu tradition, it suggests an alternative, context-adapted approach that breaks with traditional features of the dictionary article and reduces the content of the pop-up window to an absolute minimum. The idea is to avoid a consultation process that interrupts the learners' reading flow and focus on learning.

Specialized lexicography in graphic engineering has never had a tool in dictionary format that facilitates knowledge acquisition for students and meets their specific lexicographic needs in a technical university context. This paper presents an initial lemma list for a Spanish dictionary in the field of graphic engineering. The Delphi method has been used to assure expert consensus in this area. In addition, two equally professional surveys have been conducted by an expert and endorsed by experts. The fundamental concepts are considered, either because of the difficulty they represent, or due to their importance within our field of knowledge for which engineering documents and technical standards with technical graphic elements have been employed. Students have taken part in the process, thereby allowing identification of convergences and divergences between both groups of participants. The paper concludes with, on the one hand, a final list of accepted concepts and, on the other, of additional uncertain concepts, which could satisfy dictionary user needs and constitute the beginning of a functional online dictionary.

This paper advocates the convergence of terminology and lexicography, and illustrates this view by presenting some of the steps taken for incorporating terminological resources and ideas in an online dictionary portal that is being constructed at the University of Valladolid (Spain). This dictionary portal contains several dictionary types, was designed by the same team and is being constructed from the same theoretical perspective, regardless of whether some of the lexical items included are judged "lexicographic", i.e. related to general language expressions, or "terminological", i.e. connected with terms. In addition to dealing with certain basic tenets of dictionary portals, the paper describes an ad-hoc typology of definitions that has been created for two main reasons. Firstly, it makes the process of compilation easier, more uniform, and more readily systematised, thus facilitating the efforts of different people in different places at different times. Secondly, these definitions will feed the Spanish–English Write Assistant, a commercially driven language tool that uses a language module based on statistics and is in the process of using Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, e.g. machine learning and neural networks, for creating patterns. We have found that precise definitions, similar to terminological (i.e. encyclopaedic) definitions, for most lemmas increase the tool's functions. Such definitions offer a very different picture of current monolingual Spanish and bilingual Spanish–English dictionaries.

This paper offers an account of a university course in Lexicography, designed particularly for advanced EFL students. The discussion and accompanying material derive from around fifteen years of the author's experience in developing and teaching this course. The aims of the paper are twofold: firstly, to draw attention to the fact that lexicography today is no longer just 'the art and craft of' dictionary making of yesteryear but a fully-fledged applied linguistic discipline, with its own theory, methodology and practice, some of which is teachable as a dedicated academic subject; and secondly, to encourage the teaching of practical and theoretical lexicography to university students by putting forward concrete proposals. The exposition is divided into five parts, as follows: Section 1 brings some opening remarks, including that on the scientific status of lexicography; Section 2 reviews theoretical aspects regarding the design of this course; Section 3 describes practical aspects regarding the implementation of the course; Section 4 examines critical aspects regarding the evaluation of the course; and Section 5 recapitulates the main points of the paper and projects the modifications to the course in the future.

This paper deals with the design of digital lexicographical products. It introduces the philosophy of human-centered design, as explained in the work of Don Norman, and discusses central design concepts like affordances, signifiers, feedback, and other forms of good communication from lexicographer to user. The successful use of traditional dictionaries often relied on the presumed reference skills of the envisaged target user group. Especially in printed dictionaries with their space restrictions, lexicographers used condensed entries, abbreviations, and different types of structural indicators to save space. This often was to the detriment of the user who struggled to retrieve the required information from the data on offer. The digital environment has created new opportunities for lexicographers to assist their users in a far better way. Using principles of human-centered design, this paper shows the emergence of the application of some of these approaches in existing online dictionaries. Going beyond the scope of traditional online dictionaries, examples are taken from integrated e-reading dictionaries and lexicography-assisted writing assistants where even stronger user-centered design features come to the fore with regard to respectively text reception and text production assistance. Where the original concept of a dictionary culture was primarily based on the reference skills of the user, a new lexicographical culture is suggested that adheres to human-centered design principles. It places the responsibility on the shoulders of the lexicographer to design lexicographic products that enable intuitive use and ensure improved lexicographic success.

This article gives a perspective on Sesotho lexicography and a critical analysis of the macrostructures and microstructures of three selected Sesotho dictionaries. The monolingual paper dictionary Sethantšo sa Sesotho, the bilingual paper dictionary Southern Sotho–English Dictionary and the Sesotho online Bukantswe v.3 are evaluated. Their virtues and shortcomings as reference works will be viewed against dictionaries of high lexicographic achievement in order to establish to what extent they fulfil the most basic requirements of macrostructures and microstructures. The inconsistencies addressed in this article reflect the need for Sesotho lexicographers to use corpora in dictionary compilation in order to enhance the quality of entries on both microstructural and macrostructural levels. It will be argued that much more research and description of lexicographic issues is required to bring Sesotho lexicography on a par with its sister languages, Sepedi and Setswana and with good dictionaries for major languages of the world. After decades in existence, currently available Sesotho dictionaries are in dire need for revision and new dictionaries aimed at specific target users should be compiled.

The paper focuses on guiding devices in print monolingual dictionaries for learners of English. It aims to find answers to six research questions. The main aim is to investigate how the location of guiding devices within entries — starting from a new line versus run-on — affects consultation time and sense selection accuracy of dictionary users in entry navigation. In addition, the paper looks at the effect that part of speech (noun versus verb entries) has on consultation time and sense selection accuracy; further, the relationship between entry length and consultation time is investigated, as well as that between consultation time and sense selection accuracy.

German Vocabulary in Romanian Plant Names. A Report of Romanian Lexicographic Practice.This paper examines an important but insufficiently investigated phenomenon — lexical innovation as a result of plant naming and the expression of national customs and traditions — by showing various linguistic influences in common plant names. E. Coşeriu considers this phenomenon to be given insufficient importance by linguists, given that fact that individual speakers became creators of language/poetry whenever they named a plant. I am of the opinion that a botanical lexicon of a particular region, once known, is not only a thesaurus, but can also be regarded as a document of a resident population or place in the past. First and foremost, botanical folk terminology has a practical value in that it identifies, distinguishes and categorizes members of the plant kingdom within a given natural realm. It, however, also has great theoretical significance for linguists, both with regard to the etymons from which they are derived, and to the metaphorical meanings that the phytonyms usually have. The article focuses on a selected area of Romanian specialized lexicography and offers an insight into the most recent lexicographic recording of Romanian plant names. Since, however, the German vocabulary in the commonly used plant names has been rather marginalized in the Romanian specialized literature, and since its characteristics have only been recorded and described loosely, the explanations are based solely on borrowed and/or adapted Romanian plant names of German origin. Other extraneous correspondences, mix-ups, erroneous assignments, other plant species or formations with the terms German/nemţesc (‘deutsch’) or Transylvanian-Saxon/săsesc (‘sächsisch’) etc., were not considered here. In my paper this rich inventory of plant names will be presented and exemplified using the German vocabulary listed here.

Dictionaries are increasingly integrated into other tools designed to assist the reading, writing and translation of texts. Write Assistant is a newly developed tool aimed at assisting people writing in a second language. It feeds on big data taken in from corpora and digital dictionaries. The paper discusses the philosophy behind the tool, the techniques applied, its empirical basis and functionality, as well as the extent to which it helps its users. It shows how the tool makes it possible to shorten and even skip some phases in the traditional information-search process and allows its user to maintain the focus on the message to be written without the need to consult external information resources. The paper shows how the underpinning technology gives birth to a new type of dictionary that is context-aware and provides a more personalised user service. But it also indicates that future dictionaries need to be conceptionally adapted to the specific tool in order to optimize the service. All this poses new challenges to lexicography.

Meaning in dictionaries ranks as the most frequent data type consulted by language learners. An extensive range of devices have been developed to represent the meaning of lexical items in learner's dictionaries. Starting from interpreting foreign language learners' lexicographic needs in specific user situations, this paper aims to examine the implications of customizing definitions from the cultural perspective with specific reference to Chinese learners of English. The purpose of this paper is three-fold: i) to understand the status quo of the lexicographic practice of English learner's dictionaries in terms of representing the cultural dimension of a lexical item; ii) to interpret the impacts of foreign language learners' language and cultural background on their lexicographic needs in terms of cultural aspects in L2 reception; iii) to address the identified problems with present lexicographic practices through model articles. It is expected that the findings in this paper can shed some light on interpreting other ethnic groups of learners' lexicographic needs in different situations and contribute to improving the services of learner's dictionaries in the future as well.

This paper is a response to Mavoungou (2013a) who has pleaded for the production of a dictionary of Gabonese French as variant B of the French language. The paper intends to comprehend the concept of "Gabonese French". It gives an outline of the situation of French within the language diversity of Gabon as a contribution to the theoretical perspective toward the inception of Gabonese French lexicography. Answers are given to the following questions: What French is described in existing Gabonese French studies? What French is and should be presented in Gabonese French dictionary production?

This paper initially discusses some of the consequences which the technological development has for lexicography, especially in terms of the different types of empirical basis which can be used in dictionary projects. The most important advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet as a corpus are then listed and compared to the usefulness of "traditional" corpora. As an example, the paper shows how the Internet is used as the main empirical source in order to select lemmata and meaning items in the Online Dictionaries of Spanish Valladolid-UVa. The methods and tools employed in the project are discussed together with the requirements to the lexicographers' competences, knowledge and skills. Finally, the paper provides some general conclusions as well as recommendations and hypotheses for future lexicographical work and research.

This paper looks at how abbreviations and acronyms are treated in African language dictionaries in general compared to selected mainstream English dictionaries. Specifically, the study looks at their treatment in T.J. Otlogetswe's (2012) Tlhalosi ya Medi ya Setswana dictionary. Altogether, a survey of twenty selected dictionaries was carried out examining the treatment of abbreviations and acronyms in these dictionaries. Ten of these dictionaries are mainstream English dictionaries and the remaining ten are dictionaries of varied African languages spoken in the Southern African region e.g. Shona, Ndebele, Venda, Setswana and Northern Sotho. The study addresses four questions: (a) whether African lexicographers include abbreviations and acronyms in their dictionaries as is practice in mainstream English dictionaries; (b) if so, how these have been treated; (c) what linguistic features are highlighted in these entries, if any; and, (d) what recommendation the study makes for the way forward. The results showed that in most of the African dictionaries in the survey, unlike in mainstream English dictionaries, abbreviations and acronyms are not included despite the fact that many of them are coined and used by native speakers of these languages. An exception is Otlogetswe (2012) with a list of 25 abbreviations and acronyms. The paper recommends that African lexicographers include abbreviations and acronyms as part of their lexicon because these lexical items are coined by the communities making them part of the vocabulary of the language. Users of these dictionaries should find entries of abbreviations and acronyms in these dictionaries whenever they want to confirm the meaning, or when teaching.

This paper argues that the Setswana language is characterised by spelling variants which are a consequence of multiple factors. It considers spelling variants found amongst individual words as well as those found in multi-word expressions (MWEs). It argues that spelling variation may be a result of historical fissions and amalgamations of the Batswana groups as well as borrowings from adjacent languages such as Afrikaans and English. The paper considers how three monolingual Setswana dictionaries of the past twenty years, Thanodi ya Setswana (Kgasa and Tsonope 1995), Thanodi ya Setswana (Mareme 2007) and Tlhalosi ya Medi ya Setswana (Otlogetswe 2012) have lemmatised spelling variants. The paper argues that spelling variants must be included in a general monolingual dictionary and that how such variants are handled must be informed by frequency information from corpus data. The paper concludes by proposing three strategies for addressing variation in MWEs where a difference between the two or more MWEs occurs because of a single word in the MWE or where variation is caused by the presence or absence of a word in a MWE. The third solution applies to cases where the variants differ in too many places such that it would be much more elegant to treat them as separate entries.

Controlled defining vocabularies have been used regularly in lexicography since the 1970s. They are mostly employed in learners' and school dictionaries and have been used to ensure that the definitions are easily understood by the dictionary user, and that the words used to define a lemma are not more difficult than the lemma itself. In my experience, defining vocabularies compiled for English dictionaries for a British or American market are not entirely sufficient for southern African dictionaries. Words which would be well-known and used in southern Africa are not included in a foreign defining vocabulary. With this article, it is my intention to find methods of adapting existing defining vocabularies and to compile one that is more useful for southern African school dictionaries. A complete southern African English defining vocabulary is not part of the scope of this paper, but by providing some suggestions, I hope to make the reader realize that there is a need for a complete defining vocabulary that would cater to the needs of a southern African dictionary and its users. Further research would then be an extension of this paper into a full defining vocabulary (DV) that would be used for southern African dictionaries.

The paper demonstrates how some of the dictionaries written in less documented languages, hardly meet the expectations of target users, due to some of the methods used in collecting and arranging meanings of words. The paper, therefore, explains the semantico-syntactic method of eliciting multiple conceptual meanings of words and the alphasyntactico-semantic mode of their arrangement in dictionary making. It concludes by showing how the two methods can lead to compilation of good dictionaries in less documented languages and how the dictionaries would be of benefit to the target users.

Non-sexism is one of the outstanding and obvious proofs of how social and cultural changes are taken into account in the English language. However, it is still a usage problem for natives and learners alike. This paper uses the degendering of phoric elements as an illustration of efforts in the 9th edition of Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (OALD9) to capture and express social and cultural changes in the English language. It also attempts to point out some mismatches between rules and actual practice in this enterprise. Finally, it intends to show how the dictionary may act as an ideological tool, imposing, sustaining, highlighting, and perpetuating some points of view to the detriment of others. In practice, the use of more than one structure to achieve non-sexism makes fluency difficult and writing cumbersome.

This article, the second in a series of three on lexicographic data boxes, focuses primarily on the types and contents of data boxes with particular reference to dictionaries for English and African languages. It will be proposed that data boxes in paper and electronic dictionaries can be divided into three categories and that a hierarchy between these types of boxes can be distinguished, i.e. (a) a bottom tier — data boxes used as mere alternatives to other lexicographic ways of presentation such as the bringing together of related items and/or to make entries visually more attractive, (b) a middle tier — addressing more salient features e.g. range of application, contrast, register, restrictions, etc. and (c) a top tier — vital salient information, e.g. warnings, taboos and even illegal words. A distinction is made between data boxes which are universal in nature, i.e. applicable to any language, data boxes pertaining to a language family and data boxes applicable to a specific language.

In addition to the general English knowledge required for nearly any human occupation today, vocabulary competence has been especially focused on seeking to keep pace with boosting Englishes for Specific Purposes. Owing to the possibilities offered by contemporary software solutions, corpus linguistics has been able to answer some specific questions on the vocabulary demand of texts, as well as to provide concentrated vocabulary lists according to their frequency in real-life texts (corpora). Aiming to provide our target learners of English for marine engineering purposes with a practical vocabulary tool to help them reach an adequate reading comprehension text coverage of 95%, we developed a marine engineering word list of 337 word families, accompanied by a list of 73 transparent compounds, which were derived from the corpus of marine engineering instruction books with 1,769,821 running words. The list can be studied in university classes or training courses for seafarers, through various types of vocabulary exercises, but it might also assist in building technical glossaries and dictionaries. The methodology used and procedures applied in the paper should hopefully be of assistance to other authors and language instructors working on other areas of technical English.

The paper is dedicated to issues related to designations of women in the Polish language from the second half of the 19th century until the present time. The socio-cultural history of a group of Polish feminine personal nouns (referred to as feminitives or feminatives) which denote women's social and/or occupational status is discussed. It is argued that feminine personal nouns have been directly dependent on various ideologies: women's emancipation, socrealism and feminism. Ideologies have impacted the use of feminatives, by intensifying or limiting their use in discourse during a particular period, and the attitude of language users to ideologies has influenced the way in which feminatives are perceived. While presenting the richness of the repertoire of gender exponents in contemporary Polish, the possibility of the incorporation of feminine personal formations into dictionaries of general Polish in a scientific and objective manner is investigated. A similar idea was proposed at Wrocław University, as a result of which a group of female lexicographers compiled Słownik nazw żeńskich polszczyzny [Dictionary of Polish Female Nouns]. Some of its innovative lexicographical assumptions (description, not prescription, a discourse-centred method) are discussed in this article. The text corpus presented in the article enables the reader to trace the history of feminine personal nouns in Polish, i.e. their disappearance and re-appearance in the language.

Limburgish is a regional language in the Limburg region consisting mostly of the Belgian and Dutch provinces of Limburg. The discussion will be on the Dutch province of Limburg where Limburgish has received some legal recognition as a language. It is desirable to have a Dutch–Limburgish legal dictionary to communicate Dutch law, although Limburgish legal terminology is not a working legal language in any legal system. Special structures and data are needed to collect accessible contents for a Dutch–Limburgish legal dictionary. However, there is no blueprint to create a bilingual legal dictionary for a single jurisdiction. Therefore, this paper first considers some options for the design of the intended dictionary before going into possible sources for Dutch and Limburgish data. The concluding remarks deal with the immediate challenges to be overcome before reaching the production stage of a useful and fully-fledged Dutch–Limburgish legal dictionary.

The Contrastive Definition in Afrikaans Explanatory DictionariesThis paper deals with the contrastive definition which is readily applied in Afrikaans standard explanatory dictionaries to define the female member of a gender opposition pair. The aim of the paper is to determine whether the contrastive definition is a full lexicographic definition, and whether its application is lexicographically justifiable. The terms gender opposition, gender opposition pairs, male and female members of gender opposition pairs and contrastive definition are explained at the outset. Arguments in favour of the application of the contrastive definition found in Afrikaans metalexicographic literature, are presented, followed by arguments opposing its use. The absence of an evaluation of the contrastive definition as lexicographic definition is confirmed, and such an evaluation, based on further research into the use of the contrastive definition in the Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal, is consequently presented. The implications of the use of the contrastive definition in terms of current lexicographic conventions and the employment of a model in terms of which lexicographic definitions can be classified, lead to the conclusion that the contrastive definition cannot be regarded as a lexicographic definition. Comparable defining strategies in non-Afrikaans dictionaries are briefly highlighted, followed by proposals for the alternative treatment of (female members of) morphologically marked gender opposition pairs.Keywords: contrastive definition; cross reference; female members; gender opposition; gender opposition pairs; lexicographer; lexicographic treatment; lexicographic definition; male members; morphologically marked gender opposition pairs; reference; semantic and syntactic information; semantic explanation; standard explanatory dictionaryHierdie artikel behandel die teenstellingsdefinisie wat geredelik in Afrikaanse standaard verklarende woordeboeke gebruik word om die vroulike lid van 'n geslagsopposisiepaar te definieer. Die doel van die artikel is om te bepaal of die teenstellingsdefinisie 'n volwaardige leksikografiese definisie is, en of die gebruik daarvan leksikografies geregverdig is. Die terme geslagsopposisie, geslagsopposisiepare, manlike en vroulike lede van geslagsopposisiepare en teenstellingsdefinisie word ten aanvang verduidelik. Argumente ten gunste van die gebruik van die teenstellingsdefinisie aangetref in die Afrikaanse metaleksikografiese literatuur, word weergegee, gevolg deur argumente wat die gebruik van dié definisie teenstaan. Die afwesigheid van 'n evaluering van die teenstellingsdefinisie as leksikografiese definisie word bevestig, en sodanige evaluering word vervolgens aangebied na aanleiding van verdere ondersoek na die optrede van dié definisie in die Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal. Die implikasies van die optrede van die teenstellingsdefinisie in terme van geldende leksikografiese konvensies en die aanwending van 'n model in terme waarvan leksikografiese definisies geklassifiseer kan word, lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat die teenstellingsdefinisie nie as leksikografiese definisie erken kan word nie. Vergelykbare definiëringstrategieë in nie-Afrikaanse woordeboeke word kortliks uitgewys, gevolg deur voorstelle vir die alternatiewe hantering van (vroulike lede van) morfologies gemerkte geslagsopposisiepare.Sleutelwoorde: betekenisverklaring; geslagsopposisie; geslagsopposisiepare; kruisverwysing; leksikograaf; leksikografiese definisie; leksikografiese hantering; manlike lede; morfologies gemerkte geslagsopposisiepare; semantiese en sintaktiese inligting; standaard verklarende woordeboek; teenstellingsdefinisie; verwysing; vroulike lede

The paper examines the "predictability criterion", a classificatory tool which is used in selecting affixed word forms for dictionary entries. It focuses on the criterion as it has been used by the African Languages Lexical (ALLEX) Project for selecting extended verbs to enter as headwords in the Project's first monolingual Shona dictionary Duramazwi ReChiShona. The article also examines the status of Shona verbal extensions in terms of their semantic input to the verb stems they are attached to. The paper was originally motivated by two observations: (a) that predictability seems to be a matter of degree; and (b) that the predictability criterion tended to be used inconsistently in the selection of extended verbs and senses for Duramazwi ReChiShona. An analysis of 412 productively extended verbs that were entered as headwords in Duramazwi ReChiShona shows that verbal extensions can bring both predictable and unpredictable senses to the verb stems they are attached to. The paper demonstrates that for an effective use of the predictability criterion for selecting extended verbs for Shona dictionaries, there is need for the lexicographer to have an in-depth understanding of the kinds of semantic movements that are caused when verb stems are extended. It shows the need to view verbal extensions in Shona as derivational morphemes, not inflectional morphemes as some earlier scholars have concluded. Die gebruik van die voorspelbaarheidskriterium om uitgebreide werkwoorde te selekteer vir ShonawoordeboekeHierdie artikel ondersoek die "voorspelbaarheidskriterium", 'n klassifikasiehulpmiddel wat gebruik word om geaffigeerde woordvorme te selekteer as woordeboekinskrywings. Dit fokus op die kriterium soos dit gebruik is deur die African Language Lexical (ALLEX) Project vir die selektering van uitgebreide werkwoorde as lemmas in die Projek se eerste eentalige Shonawoordeboek Duramazwi ReChiShona. In hierdie artikel word die status van Shona se werkwoordelike uitbreidings ondersoek in terme van hul semantiese opname in die werkwoordstamme waarmee hulle verbind is. Die artikel is oorspronklik gemotiveer deur twee waarnemings: (a) dat voorspelbaarheid 'n graadkwessie is; en (b) dat die neiging bestaan het om die voorspelbaarheidskriterium in die seleksie van uitgebreide werkwoorde en betekenisse vir die Duramazwi ReChiShona inkonsekwent toe te pas. 'n Ontleding van 412 produktief uitgebreide werkwoorde wat as lemmas in Duramazwi ReChiShona opgeneem is, toon dat werkwoordelike uitbreidings sowel voorspelbare as onvoorspelbare betekenisse kan toevoeg tot die werkwoordstamme waarmee hulle verbind is. Die artikel bewys dat dit vir die effektiewe gebruik van die voorspelbaarheidskriterium vir die seleksie van uitgebreide werkwoorde vir Shonawoordeboeke vir die leksikograaf noodsaaklik is om 'n grondige insig te hê in die tipes semantiese verskuiwings wat veroorsaak word deur die uitbreiding van werkwoordstamme. Dit toon die noodsaaklikheid om werkwoordelike uitbreidings in Shona te beskou as afleidingsmorfeme en nie as fleksiemorfeme soos sommige vroeëre vakkundiges besluit het nie.

The paper discusses the role of the dictionary in standardizing the spelling of Swahili. The discussion begins by defining key terms in this paper: spelling and standardization of spelling. It surveys lexicons written in Swahili between 1811–1990 and records the efforts made to establish spelling conventions for Swahili words in Roman characters, pointing out variant spellings of words written by different authors. The paper focuses on the role played by different lexicons in setting orthography for Swahili words, viz. Steere (1870), Krapf (1882), Nettelbladt (1891), Madan (1903), Sacleux (1939), etc. It observes how the lexicons established norms for words of a language which was hitherto not written in Roman characters. It also shows how lexicons helped to standardize the spelling of words to its current form especially after a standard dialect had been selected, pointing out lexicons which exclusively recorded words of the standard language with minimal variants. Finally the paper emphasizes the significance of the dictionary to adhere to the standard orthography.Keywords: standardization of spelling; spelling conventions; standard orthography; swahili alphabet; dialectical variations; catchwords; phonetic transcriptions; standard language; spelling system; nonstandard orthography; standardization process; word-list; lexicon and dictionary In hierdie artikel word die rol van die woordeboek in die standaardisering van die spelling van Swahili bespreek. Die bespreking begin met die definiëring van sleutelterme in hierdie artikel: spelling en die standaardisering van spelling. Dit gee 'n oorsig van leksikons wat tussen 1811–1990 in Swahili geskryf is en vermeld die pogings om spellingkonvensies vir Swahili woorde in Latynse letters vas te stel, terwyl spellingvariante van woorde deur verskillende outeurs uitgewys word. Die artikel fokus op die rol wat deur verskillende leksikons gespeel is om die ortografie vir Swahiliwoorde vas te stel, nl. Steere (1870), Krapf (1882), Nettelbladt (1891), Madan (1903), Sacleux (1939), ens. Dit stel vas hoe die leksikons norme vir woorde van 'n taal wat tot op daardie tydstip nie in Latynse letters geskryf is nie, vasgestel het. Dit wys ook hoe leksikons gehelp het om die spelling van woorde in hulle huidige vorm te standaardiseer, veral nadat 'n standaarddialek gekies is, met vermelding van leksikons wat slegs woorde van die standaardtaal met min variante opgeteken het. Ten slotte beklemtoon die artikel die belangrikheid daarvan dat 'n woordeboek by die standaardortografie bly.Sleutelwoorde: standaardisering van spelling; spellingkonvensies; standaardortografie; swahilialfabet; dialektiese variasies; trefwoorde; fonetiese transkripsies; standaardtaal; spellingsisteem; niestandaardortografie; standaardiseringsproses; woordelys; leksikon en woordeboek

On 12 April 1996 the State Language Services organized a language planning seminar, Lexicography as a Financial Asset in a Multilingual South Africa, held at the Bureau of the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal in Stellenbosch. A special feature of this workshop was the active participation not only of linguists and lexicographers involved in the academic and practical side of producing dictionaries, but also of those with commercial interests in this area, viz. publishers and marketers of dictionaries. An important part of the seminar was the contributions on the lexicographic needs of each of the eleven official languages of the Republic of South Africa. This seminar was followed by a consultative meeting for stakeholders arranged by the Pan South African Language Board (PANSALB) on 31 October 1997 in Johannesburg. The purpose of the meeting was to explain to participants the state of the legislation concerning lexicography units, to inform participants of the language plan for the Republic of South Africa and the role of lexicography in it, to make participants aware of the preparation needed to establish a lexicography unit, and to obtain the view of participants regarding important lexicographic matters by means of a questionnaire and discussions. This meeting was an important precursor to two further meetings which PANSALB arranged in the Johannesburg Civic Centre, namely the Lexicographic Meeting of the Existing Lexicographic Units of South Africa on 19 and 20 March 1998 and the Lexicographic Meeting of the Languages which do not already have a Lexicographic Unit on 14 and 15 May 1998. The delegates participated in establishing norms for the recognition of existing and new lexicography units, and for the provision of personnel to, and for the state subsidisation of lexicography units. Regulations for the lexicography units were also discussed. The papers presented at these two meetings provide a synopsis of the state of lexicography in the different official languages of the Republic of South Africa. The assignment for the first occasion was to outline the mission, history and present situation of the existing units, namely of Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, Sepedi, isiXhosa and isiZulu. The assignment for the second occasion was to delineate the state of lexicography in those languages which do not have lexicography units, namely Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda and Tsonga. Adapted and updated extracts from the documentation of these meetings are published here with the kind permission of PANSALB and of the presenters of the different papers. These are preceded by an exposition of the procedure for the establishing of the lexicography units for the eleven official languages of the Republic of South Africa. PANSALB was established in 1995 in terms of the Pan South African Language Board Act (No. 59 of 1995). To make provision for, inter alia, the creation of lexicography units by PANSALB, the Pan South African Language Board Amendment Act (No. 10 of 1999) was assented to this year. The aims of PANSALB are: (a) to promote respect for and ensure the implementation of the following principles: (i) the creation of conditions for the development and for the promotion of the equal use and enjoyment of all the official South African languages; (ii) the extension of those rights relating to language and the status of languages which before 27 April 1994 were restricted to certain regions; (iii) the prevention of the use of any language for the purposes of exploitation, domination or division; (iv) the promotion of — (aa) multilingualism; and (bb) the provision of translation and interpreting facilities; (v) the fostering of respect for languages spoken in the Republic other than the official languages, and the encouragement of their use in appropriate circumstances; and (vi) the non-diminution of rights relating to language and the status of languages existing before 27 April 1994; (b) to further the development of the official South African languages; (c) to promote respect for and the development of other languages used by communities in South Africa, and languages used for religious purposes; (d) to promote knowledge of and respect for the provisions and principles of the Constitution relating directly or indirectly to language matters; (e) to promote respect for multilingualism in general; and (f) to promote the utilisation of South Africa's language resources.The National Lexicography Units - Existing and ProspectiveM.B. KumaloBureau of the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse TaalB.P.D. Gabriels, A.E. Cloete and W.F. BothaDictionary Unit for isiNdebeleP.B. SkhosanaDictionary Unit for South African EnglishPenny SilvaSepedi Dictionary ProjectD.J. Prinsloo and K.J. MashamaiteXhosa Dictionary ProjectT.X. MfaxaZulu Dictionary ProjectA.C. NkabindeThe State of Lexicography in SesothoM.A. MolelekiThe State of Lexicography in SetswanaM.R. MalopeThe State of siSwati LexicographyP.M. LubisiThe State of Tshivenda LexicographyA. MawelaThe State of Xitsonga LexicographyD.I. MathumbaKeywords: pansalb; lexicography units; pan south african language board act; 1995; pan south african language board amendment act; 1998; afrilex; bureau of the woordeboek van die afrikaanse taal; dictionary unit for isindebele; dictionary unit for south african english; northern sotho dictionary unit; xhosa dictionary project; zulu dictionary project; sesotho lexicography; setswana lexicography; siswati lexicography; tshivenda lexicography; tsonga lexicography Op 12 April 1996 het die Staatstaaldiens 'n taalbeplanningseminaar, Lexicography as a Financial Asset in a Multilingual South Africa, gereël wat by die Buro van die Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal op Stellenbosch gehou is. 'n Besondere kenmerk van dié seminaar was die deelname nie net van taalkundiges en leksikograwe betrokke by die akademiese en praktiese kant van die opstel van woordeboeke nie, maar ook diegene met kommersiële belange op hierdie gebied, nl. die uitgewers en bemarkers van woordeboeke. 'n Belangrike deel van dié seminaar was die bydraes oor die leksikografiese behoeftes van elkeen van die elf amptelike tale van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika. Hierdie seminaar is gevolg deur 'n raadplegende vergadering gereël deur die Pan-Suid-Afrikaanse Taalraad (PANSAT) met belanghebbendes op 31 Oktober 1997 in Johannesburg. Die doel van die vergadering was om aan deelnemers die stand van die wetgewing betreffende leksikografie-eenhede te verduidelik, om deelnemers in te lig oor die taalplan van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika en die rol van die leksikografie daarin, om deelnemers bewus te maak van die voorbereiding nodig om 'n leksikografie-eenheid op te rig, en om die opvattings van deelnemers te verkry betreffende belangrike leksikografiese aangeleenthede met behulp van 'n vraelys en besprekings. Hierdie byeenkoms was 'n belangrike voorloper van twee verdere byeenkomste wat deur PANSAT in die Burgersentrum in Johannesburg gereël is, nl. Lexicographic Meeting of the Existing Lexicographic Units of South Africa op 19 en 20 Maart 1998 en Lexicographic Meeting of the Languages which do not already have a Lexicographic Unit op 14 en 15 Mei 1998. Die afgevaardigdes het deelgeneem aan die bepaling van norme vir die erkenning van bestaande en nuwe leksikografie-eenhede, en vir die voorsiening van personeel aan en staatsubsidiëring van leksikografie-eenhede. Bepalings vir die leksikografie-eenhede is ook bespreek. Die referate wat by hierdie twee byeenkomste gehou is, gee 'n oorsig van die stand van die leksikografie in die verskillende amptelike tale in die Republiek van Suid-Afrika. Die opdrag vir die eerste geleentheid was om die missie, geskiedenis en huidige omstandighede van die bestaande eenhede uiteen te sit, nl. Afrikaans, Engels, isiNdebele, Sepedi, isiXhosa en isiZulu. Die opdrag vir die tweede geleentheid was om die stand van die leksikografie te skets in die tale wat nog nie leksikografiese eenhede het nie, nl. Sesotho, Setwana, siSwati, Tshivenda en Tsonga. Aangepaste en bygewerkte uittreksels uit die dokumentasie van die byeenkomste word hier gepubliseer met die vriendelike vergunning van PANSAT en die aanbieders van die onderskeie referate. Hulle word voorafgegaan deur 'n uiteensetting van die prosedure vir die instelling van die leksikografie-eenhede vir die elf amptelike tale van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika. PANSAT het in 1995 tot stand gekom kragtens die Wet op die Pan-Suid-Afrikaanse Taalraad (No. 59 van 1995). Om onder andere voorsiening te maak vir die stigting van leksikografie-eenhede deur PANSAT is die Wysigingswet op die Pan-Suid-Afrikaanse Taalraad (No. 10 van 1999) vanjaar aangeneem. Die oogmerke van PANSAT is: (a) om respek te bevorder vir, en die implementering te verseker van die volgende beginsels: (i) die skepping van toestande vir die ontwikkeling en vir die bevordering van die gelyke gebruik en benutting van al die amptelike Suid-Afrikaanse tale; (ii) die uitbreiding van daardie regte met betrekking tot taal en die status van tale wat voor 27 April 1994 tot sekere streke beperk was; (iii) die voorkoming van die gebruik van enige taal vir die doeleindes van uitbuiting, oorheersing of verdeling; (iv) die bevordering van — (aa) veeltaligheid; en (bb) die voorsiening van vertalings- en tolkfasiliteite; (v) die kweek van respek vir ander tale, benewens die amptelike tale, wat in die Republiek gepraat word, en die aanmoediging van die gebruik daarvan in gepaste omstandighede; en (vi) die nievermindering van regte met betrekking tot taal en die status van tale wat voor 27 April 1994 bestaan het; (b) om die uitbouing van die amptelike Suid-Afrikaanse tale na te streef; (c) om respek vir en die ontwikkeling van ander tale wat deur gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika gebruik word, asook tale wat vir godsdiensdoeleindes gebruik word, te bevorder; (d) om kennis van en respek vir die bepalings en beginsels van die Grondwet wat regstreeks of onregstreeks betrekking het op taalaangeleenthede, te bevorder; (e) om respek vir veeltaligheid in die algemeen te bevorder; en (f) om die benutting van Suid-Afrika se taalhulpbronne te bevorder.The National Lexicography Units - Existing and ProspectiveM.B. KumaloBureau of the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse TaalB.P.D. Gabriels, A.E. Cloete and W.F. BothaDictionary Unit for isiNdebeleP.B. SkhosanaDictionary Unit for South African EnglishPenny SilvaSepedi Dictionary ProjectD.J. Prinsloo and K.J. MashamaiteXhosa Dictionary ProjectT.X. MfaxaZulu Dictionary ProjectA.C. NkabindeThe State of Lexicography in SesothoM.A. MolelekiThe State of Lexicography in SetswanaM.R. MalopeThe State of siSwati LexicographyP.M. LubisiThe State of Tshivenda LexicographyA. MawelaThe State of Xitsonga LexicographyD.I. MathumbaSleutelwoorde: pansat; leksikografie-eenhede; wet op die pan-suid-afrikaanse taalraad; 1995; wysigingswet op die pan-suid-afrikaanse taalraad; 1999; afrilex; buro van die woordeboek van die afrikaanse taal; dictionary unit for south african english; sepedi woordeboekprojek; woordeboekeenheid vir isindebele; xhosa woordeboekprojek; zulu woordeboekprojek; sesotho leksikografie; setswana leksikografie; siswati leksikografie; tshivenda leksikografie; tsonga leksikografie

This paper deals with the importance of a business plan when planning a lexicographical project. A business plan is an aspect of a lexicographical process most lexicographers would like to ignore. It is, however, an important step towards the establishment of a dictionary project. The compilation of a dictionary is a time-consuming process and a costly business, and proper planning is of the utmost importance, whether a dictionary project is undertaken by an individual or by a team of lexicographers. Therefore a business plan is the ideal tool for proper planning before embarking on a lexicographical project. It also gives stakeholders an indication of the scope of the envisaged lexicographical project. Financiers require a business plan to authorise the financing of a project, and this also applies to a lexicographical project. This paper deals with the importance of and reasons for a business plan. It also covers aspects such as drawing up a business plan as well as its contextual requirements.Keywords: action plan; business plan; collaborators; critical success factor; empirical survey; end user; financier; goal; human resources; key service; key uncertainty; knowledge transfer; lexicographical practice; lexicography unit; mission; needs assessment; objective; opportunity; organisational structure; risk; situation analysis; stakeholder; strategy; visionHierdie artikel handel oor die belangrikheid van 'n sakeplan by die beplanning van 'n leksikografieprojek. 'n Sakeplan is 'n aspek van die leksikografieproses wat liefs deur die meeste leksikograwe geïgnoreer sou wou word. Dit is egter 'n belangrike stap in die totstandbrenging van 'n leksikografieprojek. Die saamstel van 'n woordeboek is 'n tydrowende proses en duur saak en behoorlike beplanning is van die uiterste belang of die woordeboekprojek deur 'n individu of deur 'n span leksikograwe aangepak word. Derhalwe is 'n sakeplan 'n uitstekende hulpmiddel om behoorlike beplanning te doen voordat daar met 'n leksikografieprojek begin word. Dit gee aan belanghebbendes 'n aanduiding van die omvang van die beoogde leksikografiese projek. Finansiers vereis 'n sakeplan om die finansiering van 'n projek goed te keur en dit geld ook vir 'n leksikografieprojek. Hierdie artikel handel oor die waarde van en rede vir 'n sakeplan. Dit dek ook aspekte soos die opstel van 'n sakeplan, sowel as die inhoudelike vereistes daarvan.Sleutelwoorde: aksieplan; behoeftebepaling; belanghebbende; doel; doelwit; eindgebruiker; empiriese ondersoek; finansier; geleentheid; inligtingoordrag; kritieke suksesfaktor; leksikografie-eenheid; leksikografiepraktyk; medewerkers; menslike hulpbron; missie; organisasiestruktuur; risiko; sakeplan; situasieanalise; sleuteldiens; sleutelveranderlike; strategie; visie

ABSTRACT: One finding of user studies is that information on meaning tends to be what dictionary users want most from their dictionaries. This is consistent with the traditional image of the dictionary as a repository of meanings of words, and this is also borne out in definitions of the item DICTIONARY itself as given in dictionaries. While this popular view has not changed much, the growing role of electronic dictionaries can change the lexicographers' approach to meaning representation. Traditionally, paper dictionaries have explained words with words, using either a definition or an equivalent, and occasionally a line-drawn picture. However, a prominent feature of the electronic medium is its multimodality, and this offers potential for the description of meaning. While it is much easier to include pictorial content, electronic dictionaries can also hold media objects which paper cannot carry, such as audio, animation or video. Publishers are drawn by the attraction of these new options, but are they always functionally useful for the dictionary users? In this article, the existing evidence is examined, and informed guesses are offered where evidence is not yet available.OPSOMMING: Multimodale leksikografie: Die voorstelling van betekenis in elektroniese woordeboeke. Een bevinding van gebruikerstudies is dat inligting oor betekenis dit blyk te wees wat woordeboekgebruikers die meeste van hul woordeboeke verlang. Dit is in ooreenstemming met die tradisionele beeld van die woordeboek as 'n bewaarplek van die betekenisse van woorde, en dit word ook bevestig deur die definisies van die item WOORDEBOEK self soos aangebied in woordeboeke. Terwyl hierdie populêre siening nie veel verander het nie, kan die toenemende rol van elektroniese woordeboeke leksikograwe se benadering tot betekenisvoorstelling verander. Tradisioneel het papierwoordeboeke woorde met woorde verduidelik deur óf 'n definisie, óf 'n ekwivalent te gebruik, en soms 'n lyngetekende illustrasie. 'n Opvallende kenmerk van die elektroniese medium is sy multimodaliteit, en dit bied 'n moontlikheid vir die beskrywing van betekenis. Terwyl dit baie makliker is om illustratiewe inhoud in te sluit, kan elektroniese woordeboeke ook mediaobjekte bevat wat papier nie kan oordra nie, soos oudio, animasie en video. Uitgewers word aangetrek deur hierdie nuwe keuses, maar is hulle altyd funksioneel nuttig vir die woordeboekgebruikers? In hierdie artikel word bestaande getuienis ondersoek en ingeligte raaiskote aangebied waar getuienis nog nie beskikbaar is nie.Sleutelwoorde: ELEKTRONIESE WOORDEBOEK, BETEKENIS, ILLUSTRASIE, ANIMASIE, OUDIO, KLANKEFFEKTE, VIDEO, MULTIMODALITEIT, GESPESIALISEERDE LEKSIKOGRAFIE, AANLEERDERSWOORDEBOEK

Abstract: Lexicographers increasingly acknowledge the enormous potential of electronic dictionaries. The great capacity and speed characteristic of electronic products, combined with enhanced query and data retrieval technology, pave the way to a new generation of dictionaries unimagined in the paper-dictionary era. It is amazing to see how many of the lexicographer's greatest obstacles disappear in the electronic dictionary. This article will, firstly, attempt to give a perspective on typical features of electronic dictionaries. Secondly, electronic-dictionary entries will be designed as a solution to some of the most burning lemmatization problems encountered by lexicographers for African languages in paper dictionaries.Keywords: ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY, LEXICOGRAPHY, DATA RETRIEVAL, LEMMATIZATION, CD-ROM, ACCESS ROUTE, POP-UP FUNCTIONALITIES, POP-UP SCREENS, EDUTAINMENT, CROSS-REFERENCING, INFORMATION RETRIEVAL, ENCODING, DECODING, AFRICAN LANGUAGES, NAVIGATION BAR.Opsomming: Die samestelling van elektroniese woordeboeke vir dieAfrikatale. Leksikograwe erken in toenemende mate die enorme moontlikhede van elektroniesewoordeboeke. Die groot vermoë en spoed wat kenmerkend is van elektroniese produkte,tesame met die bykomende tegnologie van soektogte en dataopsporing, berei die weg voor na 'nnuwe generasie woordeboeke wat ondenkbaar was in die era van gedrukte woordeboeke. Dit isverbasend om te sien hoeveel van die leksikograaf se grootste struikelblokke verdwyn in die elektroniesewoordeboek. Hierdie artikel sal eerstens probeer om 'n oorsig te gee oor die kenmerkendeeienskappe van elektroniese woordeboeke. Tweedens sal inskrywings vir die elektroniese woordeboekontwerp word as oplossing vir sommige van die dringendste lemmatiseringsprobleme watleksikograwe van Afrikatale by gedrukte woordeboeke teëkom.Sleutelwoorde: ELEKTRONIESE WOORDEBOEK, LEKSIKOGRAFIE, DATAOPSPORING,LEMMATISERING, CD-ROM, TOEGANGSROETE, OPSPRINGFUNKSIONALITEITE, OPSPRINGSKERMS,OPVOEDKUNDIGE VERMAAK, KRUISVERWYSING, INLIGTINGSHERWINNING,ENKODERING, DEKODERING, AFRIKATALE, NAVIGASIESTAAF.

Abstract: Successful communication is dependent upon an adequate level of cultural as well as linguistic understanding. Language is itself part of culture and reflects social structures and attitudes. lbis paper examines the case for dictionaries to carry cultural as well as lexical information. It reviews the American tradition and purpose of including cultural material in dictionaries, and considers the nature and scope of cultural information contained in a number of modem American and European dictionaries. Various means of presenting cultural information are also examined. The paper concludes by considering the implications for lexicographers developing dictionaries in multicultural South Africa.Keywords: COMMUNICATION, CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION, CULTURAL INFORMATION, CULTURE, CURRICULUM, DICTIONARIES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES, DICTIONARY, DICTIONARY DESIGN, ENCYCLOPEDIA, ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARIES, LANGUAGE, LEXICOGRAPHY, MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY, SOUTH AFRICAOpsomming: W oorde binne In kulturele konteks. Suksesvolle kommunikasie berusop 'n voldoende vlak van kulturele sowel as taalkundige begrip. Taal self is deeJ van kuJtuur enweerspieiH sosiale strukture en houdings. Hierdie artikel ondersoek die insluiting van sowel kultureleas leksikale inIigting in woordeboeke. Dit beoordeel die Amerikaanse tradisie en doel daarmeeom kulturele materiaal in woordeboeke in te sluit, en oorweeg die aard en omvang van kultureleinIigting vervat in 'n aantal moderne Amerikaanse en Europese woordeboeke. Verskillendemaniere om kulturele inIigting aan te bied, word ook ondersoek. Die artikel sluit af deur die implikasiesvir leksikograwe te oorweeg wat woordeboeke saamstel in multikulturele Suid-Afrika.Sleutelwoorde: KOMMUNIKASIE, INTERKULTURELE KOMMUNIKASIE, KULTURELEINLIGTlNG, KULTUUR, KURRIKULUM, WOORDEBOEKE MET SPESIALE OOGMERKE,WOORDEBOEK, WOORDEBOEKONTWERP, ENSIKLOPEDIE, ENSIKLOPEDIESE WOORDEBOEKE,TAAL, LEKSIKOGRAFIE, MULTIKULTURELE SAMELEWING, SUID-AFRIKA

Abstract: This paper highlights the challenges encountered by the African Languages Lexical (ALLEX) Project (at present the African Languages Research Institute (ALRI)) in Harare, Zimbabwe, which is in the process of compiling an advanced Shona dictionary (ASD). Its forerunner is the general Shona dictionary, Durarnazwi ReChishona (1996). The ASD is intended to be a comprehensive reference work, which will serve as a resource for more advanced users, especially those at higher secondary and tertiary education levels. The most important challenges have been in the areas of headword selection and the treatment of geographical/individual variation. The matters discussed here show the conflict between usage, i.e. popular acceptance, and (orthographic) norm, a problem often experienced in young literary languages subject to heavy foreign influence. This paper looks at: (a) the limitations of the current Shona orthography, the selection and codification of international vocabulary, and the presentation of variants and synonyms in the dictionary, and (b) the solutions suggested, and/or the ongoing debate on the topics.Keywords: HEADWORD, COMPILATION, DICTIONARY, GENERAL DICTIONARY, ADVANCED DICTIONARY, INTERNATIONAL VOCABULARY, VARIANT, VARIATION, SYNONYM, CROSS-REFERENCE, IMPLICIT CROSS-REFERENCE, EXPLICIT CROSS-REFERENCEOpsomming: Uitdagings teegekom in die samestelling van In gevorderdeSjona woordeboek. Hierdie referaat laat lig val op die uitdagings teegekom deur die AfricanLanguages Lexical (ALLEX) Project (tans die African Languages Research Institute (ALRI)) inHarare, Zimbabwe, wat besig is met die samestelling van 'n gevorderde Sjona woordeboek (ASD).Die voorloper daarvan is die algemene Sjona woordeboek Duramazwi ReChiShona (1996). Die ASDis bedoel om 'n omvattende naslaanwerk te wees wat as 'n hulpmiddel vir meer gevorderdegebruikers sal dien, veral di~ in die hoerskool of op universiteit. Die belangrikste uitdagings wasgelre in die lemmakeuse en die hantering van geografiese / individuele variasie. Die sake wat hierbespreek word toon die konflik tussen gebruik, d.w.s. populere aanvaarding, en (ortografiese)norm, 'n probleem wat dikwels voorkom in jong geskrewe tale onderworpe aan sterk vreemdeinvloed. Hierdie referaat beskou: (a) die beperkings van die huidige Sjona ortografie, die seleksieen kodifisering van die internasionale woordeskat, en die aanbieding van wisselvorme en sinoniemein die woordeboek, en (b) die voorgestelde oplossing en/of die voortgaande debat oor'hierdieonderwerpe.Sleutelwoorde: SOEKWOORD, KOMPILASIE, WOORDEBOEK, ALGEMENE WOORDEBOEK, GEVORDERDE WOORDEBOEK, INTERNASJONALE WOORDESKAT, VARIANT,VARIASIE, SINONIEM, KRUISVERWYSING, IMPUSIETE KRUISVERWYSING, EKSPLISIETEKRUISVERWYSING

ABSTRACT: Zulu uses a conjunctive writing system, that is, a system whereby relatively short linguistic words are joined together to form long orthographic words with complex morphological structures. This has led to the so-called 'stem tradition' in dictionary making — for Zulu, as well as for most other Bantu languages. Given this lemmatization approach has been found to be inadequate for young learners (who fail to isolate stems), the development of a new approach was imperative for them, but until recently deemed impossible to implement. In this paper it is argued that it is now perfectly possible to reverse the unproductive trend, and to opt for the lemmatization of full words for all but one of the word classes in Bantu. This revolution is made possible thanks to the recent availability of relatively large corpora, with which the really frequent citation options may be pinpointed. Rather than a mission statement, this paper offers the result for all word classes. To do so, an actual guide to the use of a Zulu dictionary is re-represented and annotated.SAMENVATTING: Bantoe lexicografie radicaal omgooien — een gevalsanalyse voor Zoeloe. Zoeloe maakt gebruik van een conjunctief schrijfsysteem, d.w.z. een systeem waarbij relatief korte linguïstische woorden vast aan elkaar geschreven worden met lange orthografische woorden tot gevolg, die ook nog complexe morfologische structuren vertonen. Dit heeft geleid tot wat men de 'stam traditie' in de lexicografie is gaan noemen — voor Zoeloe, alsook voor de meeste andere Bantoetalen. Aangezien deze lemmatisatieaanpak ongeschikt is gebleken voor jonge gebruikers (die woordstammen maar niet kunnen isoleren), moest voor hen een nieuwe aanpak ontwikkeld worden. Tot voor kort werd zo'n aanpak echter als niet-implementeerbaar beschouwd. In dit artikel wordt geargumenteerd dat het vandaag de dag perfect mogelijk is om de onproductieve trend om te keren, en om te kiezen voor het lemmatiseren van volledige woorden voor alle woordklassen op één na in Bantoe. Deze radicale ommezwaai werd mogelijk gemaakt dankzij het recent beschikbaar komen van relatief grote corpora, waarmee de echt frequente opties qua trefwoordkeuzes bepaald kunnen worden. In de plaats van louter de beschrijving van een doelstelling, biedt dit artikel oplossingen voor alle woordklassen. Daartoe wordt de effectieve gebruikersgids van een Zoeloe woordenboek voorgesteld en van commentaar voorzien.Sleutelwoorden: ZOELOE, BANTOE, WOORDENBOEK, GEBRUIKERSGIDS, MINIGRAMMATICA, WOORDKLASSEN, STAM- VS. WOORD-LEMMATISATIE, CORPUS, GEBRUIKSVRIENDELIJK

Abstract: In this paper the writer examines problems the African Languages Lexical (ALLEX) Project (at present the African Languages Research Institute (ALRI? encountered while tagging the Shona corpus. The problems to be highlighted include general problems which apply to more than one language as well as problems peculiar to Shona. The paper was inspired by the challenges the writer encountered when he took part in building the Shona corpus. An analysis of the problems that most corpus builders face shows that more problems are likely to be encountered when dealing with spoken corpora than with written corpora. The paper demonstrates that tagging is an important component of corpus building as it makes it easier for a researcher to extract relevant data. To utilise the benefits of a tagged corpus, the tagging should be thorough and accurate. Wellinformed decisions form an integral part of the tagging process since the utility of a tagged corpus depends largely on the input of the tagging process. This paper shows the need to take the tagging process seriously.Keywords: ALLEX PROJECT, COMPUTER, CORPUS, ENCODING, FOREIGN WORD, LEMMATIZATION, LEXICOGRAPHY, MONITOR CORPUS, PART OF SPEECH, SCANNING, SHONA, SLANG, TAGGING, TRANSCRIPTION, WORDOpsomming: Die Shonakorpus en die probleem van etikettering, In hierdieartikel ondersoek die outeur probleme wat die African Languages Lexical (ALLEX) Project (tansdie African Languages Research Institute (ALRI» teegekom het terwyl die Shonakorpus geetiketteeris. Die probleme wat bespreek word, sluit algemene probleme in wat van toepassing is opmeer as een taa, sowel as spesifieke probleme wat eie aan Shona is. Die artikel het sy ontstaan indie uitdagings wat die outeur teegekom het terwyl hy deel gehad het aan die opbou van die Shonakorpus.'n Ontieding van die probleme waarvoor die meeste korpusbouers te staan kom, toon datdaar waarskynlik meer probleme teegekom word wanneer daar met gesproke korpora as metgeskrewe korpora gewerk word. Die artikel toon dat etikettering 'n belangrike komponent van korpusbouis, aangesien dit dit vir die navorser makliker maak om relevante data te onttrek. Om dievoordele van korpusetikettering te realiseer, moet die etikettering deeglik en akkuraat wees. Ingeligtebesluite vonn 'n integrale deel van die etiketteringsproses aangesien die bruikbaarheid van 'ngeetiketteerde korpus hoofsaaklik afhang van die inset tydens die etiketteringsproses. Hierdie artikeltoon die noodsaaklikheid om die etiketteringsproses ernstig op te neem.Keywords: ALLEXPROJEK, REKENAAR, KORPUS, ENKODERING, VREEMDE WOORD,LEMMATISERING, LEKSIKOGRAFIE, MONITORKORPUS, WOORDSOORT, SKANDERING,SHONA, SLENG, ETIKETIERING, TRANSKRIPSIE, WOORD

Abstract: Intended as a companion volume to The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography (Atkins and Run-dell 2008), Fontenelle's book aims to bring together the most relevant papers in practical lexicography. This review article presents a critical analysis of the success thereof, both in quantitative and qualitative terms.Keywords: PRACTICAL LEXICOGRAPHY, DICTIONARY, MONOLINGUAL, BILINGUAL, QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION, QUALITATIVE EVALUATION, CITATION PATTERNS, CORPUS TOOLS, MEANING, DEFINITIONS, EXAMPLES, EQUIVALENCE, DICTIONARY USE, ENGLISH, FRENCHSamenvatting: Een analyse van Practical Lexicography: A Reader (Fonte-nelle 2008). Bedoeld als achtergrondlectuur bij The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography (Atkins en Rundell 2008), is het doel van Fontenelle's boek om de meest relevante papers m.b.t. praktische lexicografie samen te brengen. Dit recensieartikel is een kritische analyse van het succes daarvan, zowel in kwantitatieve als kwalitatieve termen.Sleutelwoorden: PRAKTISCHE LEXICOGRAFIE, WOORDENBOEK, EENTALIG, TWEE-TALIG, KWANTITATIEVE EVALUATIE, KWALITATIEVE EVALUATIE, CITATIEPATRONEN, CORPUS SOFTWARE, BETEKENIS, DEFINITIES, VOORBEELDEN, EQUIVALENTIE, WOOR-DENBOEKGEBRUIK, ENGELS, FRANS

One of the main tasks of compilers of bilingual dictionaries is to find suitable translation equivalents for source language lemmas in the target language. It could be expected that to a large degree one should find full equivalence, or at least partial equivalents in the target language and that there might not be many instances where such translation equivalents are not available. Typically common words such as table, chair, man, woman come to mind and they are most likely to have equivalents in the target language. This article focuses on lexical and referential gaps between English and isiZulu, and their treatment in English and isiZulu paper dictionaries. The aim is to determine to what extent suitable translation equivalents are available for English and isiZulu lemmas and what the nature, extent and treatment strategies are in cases where such equivalents are not available. It will be shown that the extent of zero equivalence is much higher for this language pair than expected in general literature on zero equivalents. In some cases a specific concept is known in the target language but the target language has no word for it but in many instances the concept itself is unknown in the target language which implies that the language will also not have a word for such a concept

Restricted dictionaries are fully-fledged dictionaries and their contribution to lexicography should never be underestimated. Because restricted dictionaries often are neglected in lexicographic discussions this article emphasises the significance of their role as members of the lexicographic family. Within a comprehensive dictionary culture the focus should not only be on dictionaries dealing with languages for general purposes but also on dictionaries in which languages for special purposes are treated. This paper firstly offers some terminological clarity and distinguishes between subject field dictionaries and special field dictionaries. The user-perspective is then discussed before it is shown how aspects of a general theory of lexicography also prevail in these dictionaries. This applies among others to the subtypological classification as well as different lexicographic functions. Using a dictionary from each of the categories of subject field and special field dictionaries it is indicated how dictionary structures are employed and further developed in an innovative way. Attention is given to structures like the article structure and the frame structure and to a transtextual approach in monolingual dictionaries with a bilingual dimension. The focus in the discussion of the subject field dictionary is on different aspects of the macrostructure. An explanation is given of double-layered sublemmata and it is shown how integrated macrostructures are employed in this dictionary. It is indicated how this section of the lexicographic practice can enrich the field of metalexicography and dictionary research.

The treatment of multiword expressions (MWEs) in dictionaries has not received much attention in metalexicography, although the significant role of phraseology has been stressed since the advent of corpus linguistics. The paper aims to analyse the lexicographic representation of semantically related MWEs, containing body part names. The study focuses on access routes to these MWEs in the 'Big Five' monolingual English learners' dictionaries online (MELDs). It investigates the presence and positions of hyperlinked MWEs on the page of the body part headword in order to find out if they depend on a given MWE or are dictionary-specific. Double or multiple hyperlinks to the same MWE are frequently found within a single body part entry, and the variety of access routes is evaluated with a view to offering a more homogeneous presentation of hyperlinked related MWEs.

Language has an inventory of words and expressions (e.g. especially, sort of, loosely speaking) used to communicate that what is being said is not exactly precise or complete. Referred to as hedges, they provide support for the conception of prototypically organized categories, developed by Eleanor Rosch in the 1970s and elaborated by her followers in subsequent decades. Given the fact that hedges are extremely useful for lexicographers in defining, this paper examined the frequency and distribution of hedges in major English dictionaries over the past centuries. One of the findings of this research is the fact that, although hedges have been used in English lexicography since Johnson-1785, their use has intensified in certain dictionaries since the rise of prototype theory, suggesting that recent defining practice in these dictionaries must have been influenced by this theory. Other factors determining the use of hedges were explored

There is a general lack of web-based tools for morphologically complex dead/old languages. Reading texts in such languages even with dictionaries is quite challenging. It is difficult to identify the lemma of a word form occurring in texts, which one could look up in a dictionary. The need for additional grammatical information about a word (classes of declension, conjugation, etc.) poses another problem. The Lexicographic Centre at Ivanè Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University (TSU) has embarked on creating a fully digitalized, web-based chrestomathy of Gothic and Anglo-Saxon texts with dictionaries and grammatical paradigms integrated in it, which would facilitate the study of these linguistically important languages. Each word of the digital versions of Gothic and Anglo-Saxon texts is hyperlinked to the corresponding headword from the dictionary. The dictionary entry itself, in addition to the meaning of the word, provides via another hyperlink all necessary information concerning the morphological class and inflectional patterns of the word in question. The paper describes the structure of the Chrestomathy and its modus operandi; analyses the dictionary component of the online resource and some lexicographic solutions; discusses lexicological and technical aspects of the online resource, etc. The method applied in the Chrestomathy can be successfully used in developing similar resources for extant, morphologically complex languages characterized with the abundance of inflectional and suppletive forms, such as Hungarian, Turkish, Russian, German, Georgian and many others.

This paper proposes a new model for exploring the properties of English lexical affixes, based on exploiting the resources of English general-purpose dictionaries. Developed primarily for EFL university students and motivated by the highly inconsistent treatment of affixes in those dictionaries, this model builds around a heuristic self-study method and its accompanying bare-bones inferential dictionary (BBID), purposefully designed, produced and distributed as a guide to students' discoveries. The model has been devised so as to direct students away from affix entries in general-purpose dictionaries towards word entries which contain specific affixes and to lead students to discover the properties of target affixes by analysing corresponding source words provided in BBID. The exposition is divided into four parts, as follows: Section 1 brings some introductory, scene-setting remarks; in Section 2, essential and relational affixal properties are presented; in Section 3, the five major aspects of the new model are explained and exemplified: pragmatic reasons, main objectives, underlying principles, instructional material and real-life functioning; finally, Section 4 offers a summary and a critical assessment of the model and its BBID, together with a glimpse into their future.

Contextualization, i.e. to provide solutions to users' information needs directly in the situation or context where these needs occur, played a significant role in the work of the Greek scribes who inserted glosses into manuscript copies of the works of Homer and other earlier writers in order to explain obsolete and unusual words. After the invention of the glossary, a schism developed within lexicography. On the one hand, there was the new compilation of glossaries and dictionaries of a still more complex and sophisticated nature. On the other hand, there was the traditional insertion of glosses into manuscript copies of books from previous periods. Although the advent of dictionaries diminished the use of contextualization procedures they were still adhered to in some publications. This paper discusses the occurrence of contextualization and personalization procedures in different eras and environments and it is shown how these procedures also introduced a lexicographic practice to some extra-dictionary environments. The importance of contextualization and personalization in modern-day lexicography is stressed. Lexicographers often have had unfulfilled dreams of new possibilities within the digital environment. However, the lack of adequate technology has made their dreams impossible – at that stage. Today new technologies and collaboration between lexicography and information science offer numerous new challenges that can be met by lexicographers. It is shown how lexicographical products being integrated into information tools little by little are closing the more than two thousand year old schism in European lexicography, i.e. reuniting contextualization and personalization. Lexicographers, the modern-day scribes, have to endeavour to make the seemingly impossible possible.