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As the intensity of communication increases, the number of language mistakes/errors increases. Nowadays, the acquisition and use of a foreign language often takes place in parallel, and language mistakes/errors are a natural part of this process but this does not mean that they must be tolerated. The study is based on the results of a sociolinguistic survey obtained in 2018 and 2019. 253 students of four Universities and specialties, as well as different study levels from Liepāja, Ventspils and Rīga participated in the survey anonymously. Most of the respondents indicated that Latvian was their mother tongue; for a small number of participants, it was a second language or a foreign language. The surveyed students also differed in the type and number of foreign languages acquired. The present paper is the second part of a wider study (see the results of the first stage of the research by Laiveniece and Lauze, 2020). The aim of this paper is to characterize students’ linguistic attitude towards language errors in learning and using a foreign language: how to evaluate errors, whether errors are generally permissible, what affects them, and how to eliminate them. In the course of the research, an assumption emerged: the more foreign languages are learned, the more tolerant the linguistic attitude is towards mistakes/errors that are made when speaking a foreign language. However, the analysis of the questionnaire findings did not confirm this. Most of the respondents attributed errors to the language learning process. Whether or not errors were made when speaking a foreign language was determined by the situation and purpose of the communication, as well as the level of language acquisition.

In this paper we continue our investigation concerning the concept of a liken. This notion has been defined as a sequence of non-negative real numbers, tending to infinity and closed with respect to addition in R. The most important examples of likens are clearly the set of natural numbers N with addition and the set of positive natural numbers N* with multiplication, represented by the sequence (ln(n+1))∞ n=0. The set of all likens can be parameterized by the points of some infinite dimensional, complete metric space. In this space of likens we consider elements up to isomorphism and define properties of likens as such that are isomorphism invariant. The main result of this paper is a theorem characterizing the liken N* of natural numbers with multiplication in the space of all likens.

The classic method of solving the cubic and the quartic equations using Tschirnhaus transformation yields true as well as false solutions. Recently some papers on this topic are published, in which methods are given to get only the true solutions of cubic and quartic equations. However these methods have some limitations. In this paper the author presents a method of solving cubic and quartic equations using Tschirnhaus transformation, which yields only the true solutions. The proposed method is much simpler than the methods published earlier.

The paper describes a study on the most common English mistakes among Lithuanians in written tasks on the topic of business and finance. The study was conducted with high school students and university students, and the effectiveness of error feedback in reducing the occurrence of errors was also examined by comparing 2 written texts of each participant. Grammatical errors related to the use of articles and punctuation were found to be the most common types of errors, and feedback on errors was found to be an effective tool in increasing learner motivation and understanding, reducing common errors but not reducing the most common types of errors. The research showed that detailed, personalized feedback can help minimize mistakes in writing assignments, especially if it can be accessed during or in between tasks. However, it is uncertain whether this method will have long-lasting benefits or if improvements are dependent on continual feedback reference. Participants were advised to keep their error feedback forms and utilize teachers’ feedback as a constant guide for improvement. We plan to utilize data on frequently occurring errors to conduct additional research on tackling and enhancing language errors that have become ingrained, employing various strategies. Based on the findings, directions for future research were identified. In the future we intend to carry out a study, using controlled texts with a pre-determined number of errors in diagnostic testing. This would allow us to more precisely analyse learners’ improvements in the use of given structures, through a more extensive research.

This article focuses on the temporal structures used by multilingual Estonian students when expressing the hour in Spanish. Learning linguistic structures related to time is crucial in the early stages of foreign language acquisition. However, these structures can be complex and vary across languages, as they are highly idiosyncratic in terms of vocabulary and syntax. This study concentrates on the difficulties Estonian students face with Spanish time adverbials, specifically prepositions and articles. The paper aims to answer several research questions related to the repertoire of temporal expressions in the students' interlanguage, the difficulty posed by typological differences between their native language and Spanish, the influence of English, and the impact of English proficiency on Spanish production. The analysis of a corpus of interlanguage texts from Estonian students is conducted to identify idiosyncratic structures and patterns, distinguishing them from standard structures. The findings reveal that the use of articles improves with higher proficiency levels, while the use of prepositions remains challenging. Furthermore, the study explores the influence of English and Estonian on the students' Spanish production and highlights the importance of crosslinguistic reflection and attention to functional words for enhanced accuracy and fluency. The article concludes by emphasizing the significance of language proficiency levels and crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition and suggesting areas for further research.

This paper contributes to the sociological understanding of social class inequalities in childhood similarities test scores. We undertake a comparative analysis of two cohorts of British children born 30 years apart. There is a similar negative relationship in both cohorts. Children born in families in the less advantaged social classes have lower childhood similarities test scores. This is consequential because these children enter secondary school with restricted capabilities in logical thinking, concept formation and abstract reasoning.

Educational aspirations play an important role in shaping students’ educational trajectories and destinations. Drawing on longitudinal data from the TREE2 study, this paper investigates the effect of tracking on the formation and adjustment of the educational aspirations of Swiss students upon leaving compulsory school. We show that educational aspirations are highly responsive to the educational track attended in upper secondary education. While students in general education tend to stick to their aspirations, their counterparts in vocational programmes exhibit less stable aspirations.

From the beginnings of translation studies to the present day, the theoretical and practical paradigm of translation has come a long way. Although it was closely associated with linguistics and the solution of linguistic problems of translation until the early 1980s, it was the first translation theories that drew attention to the cultural phenomena of texts and the challenges of translation. Translation scholars Susan Bassnett and André Lefevre (1990) wrote that translation's shift to cultural phenomena represented a significant cultural turn. This led to a paradigm shift in translation and a new view that translation is an intercultural act and a dialogue between cultures. Given the importance and relevance of research on cultural meanings in translation, this paper focuses on one type of cultural meanings – culture-specific items that sometimes become a cultural stumbling block for translators. The aim of the research described in the article is to analyse the peculiarities of the use of culture-specific items in Ričardas Gavelis's novel Vilnius Poker, to conduct a comparative study of the translation of culture-specific items from Lithuanian into English and French, and to determine the translation techniques, strategies and trends of cultural transposition used by translators. The methods used to achieve the aim of the study include synthesis of scientific literature, comparative, descriptive and quantitative analysis. The use and translation of culture-specific items does not raise the issue of equivalence and linguistic deficit. Culture-specific items are analysed not as a separate unit of the text, but as part of a holistic whole that is organically integrated into the text and contributes to its meaning. The use of culture-specific items in the research material has led to the identification of four thematic groups: social, political, and historical; folkloric and mythological; domestic; and geographical. The data obtained in the quantitative use of culture-specific items suggest that two-fifths of all the culture-specific items analysed belong to the social, political, and historical thematic group reflecting the social life, deformations, Soviet experiences, and worldview of the people in the Soviet period in Vilnius and Lithuania as a whole, as portrayed by R. Gavelis. In a comparative study of translating culture-specific items from Lithuanian into English and French, based on the translation techniques and strategies described by Andrew Chesterman, nine translation techniques and three strategies were identified: from the semantic translation strategy, synonymy, abstraction change, trope change, and paraphrase were used; from the pragmatic translation strategy, the techniques of translation were: explicitness change and omission; from the syntactic or change of form translation, the translation techniques were: literal translation, loan, and transposition. The evaluation of the different translation techniques chosen by the English and French translators to translate culture-specific items showed that the English translation adopted the tendency of foreignization in order to “bring the reader to the author”, i.e. to provide the readers of the translation with as much systematic cultural information as possible about Soviet and postwar Lithuania. In contrast, French translation showed the opposite tendency toward domestication, i.e. the abandonment, omission, or replacement of certain cultural meanings with French cultural meanings. In this, the translator's cultural transposition was shown to “bring the author to the reader”.

The issue of multilingualism often arises in the context of audiovisual translation, when dubbing, subtitling or voice-over is under discussion. This aspect also does not lose its significance in subtitling multilingual films for the deaf and hard of hearing. By applying this mode, the content of audiovisual product is conveyed to the deaf by employing a special instrument of audiovisual translation, namely, specialized subtitles (SDH). In this case, subtitles must include not only a translated dialogue text; the additional information that helps the deaf perceive the off screen non-verbal and verbal cues, understand the narrative and mood of the film and estimate roles of foreign languages must be added as well. The paper aims at exploring strategies for conveying multilingualism to the deaf in the films created by Lithuanian filmmakers. Three Lithuanian multilingual films “Back to Your Arms“ (2010, directed by K. Vildžiūnas), „How We Played the Revolution“ (2011, directed by G. Žickytė) and „Miracle“ (2017, directed by E. Vertelytė) as the research material were selected for the analysis. In the theoretical part, strategies of application of multilingual films suggested by foreign scholars (De Higes-Andino et al., 2013, 2014, Szarkowska & Żbikowska & Krejtz, 2013, 2014) are outlined; insights into multilingualism presented by Lithuanian researchers are reviewed and practical principles that help reveal multilingualism for the deaf audience in Lithuanian films are examined. A descriptive-analytical approach is employed to analyze the rendition of multilingualism to the target audience; whereas, to reveal needs of the Lithuanian deaf the analysis of achieved quantitative data is made. The study has revealed that the process of conveying multilingualism to the deaf viewers in Lithuanian films is a process that requires creativity. Moreover, the results of the analysis suggested that in the analyzed Lithuanian films a multilingual source text was only translated and subtitled by applying a standard subtitling format. With regard to the multilingualism rendering for the deaf, it can been noted that standard subtitles only partially revealed the content of the film; though, the information and aspects about multilingualism as such still remained inaccessible. For this reason, special subtitles (SDH) for the hearing impaired viewers should be prepared; however, this type of subtitles has stayed uncommon for the Lithuanian filmmakers.

The class of pseudo-M algebras contains pseudo-BCK, pseudo-BCI, pseudo-BCH, pseudo-BE, pseudo-CI algebras and many other algebras of logic. In this paper, the notion of deductive system in a pseudo-M algebra is introduced and its elementary properties are investigated. Closed deductive systems are defined and studied. The homomorphic properties of (closed) deductive systems are provided. The concepts of translation deductive systems and R-congruences in pseudo-M algebras are introduced and investigated. It is shown that there is a bijection between closed translation deductive systems and R-congruences. Finally, the construction of quotient algebra A/D of a pseudo-M algebra A via a translation deductive system D of A is given.

This paper deals with multi-story buildings erected mostly in interwar period in seismic areas and designed for gravitational actions only. The typical structural system is reinforced concrete frames and masonry infills. A usual multi-story interwar structure was chosen in order to evaluate its seismic resilience. There were made in situ measurements for its dynamic characteristics. The numerical model was calibrated according to in situ measurements. There were proposed two methods of increasing the seismic resilience. First method consists in improving the resilience by reshaping without reinforcing. The second method is additional to the first. It consists in reinforcing infilled frames in order to take over seismic loads.

Quality is a requirement of the 21st century, ranging from education to construction. Hence, this paper aims to treat in a theoretical but especially in an applied manner the set of concepts which lead to the achievement of quality in construction.

The paper presents aspects related to the verification of the general stability of the bridge superstructures on circular arches with rigid vertical hangers, bridges of open-type or free-standing, without upper bracing.

The paper presents the comparative analyses in terms of dynamic behavior of two scenarios of an RC frame structural system for a duplex house situated in Neamt, Romania a seismic zone with PGA 0.25g. The study shows the structural behavior in terms of vibration modes, horizontal displacements and efforts. The conclusions offer the best argument to chose the preferred structural system by owner.

The importance of stereotypical uses of language is recognized by most didactic studies of the vocabulary (Granger and Paquot, 2008). Collocations are an area of vocabulary which is difficult to master by non-native learners. This type of lexical relation often presents itself as a semi-frozen binary lexical co-occurrence. The meaning of collocations is often transparent in reception, while in production, it requires a special effort on behalf of the learner. In this paper, we have tried to verify this assertion by comparing the corpus of French language and that of learners, and to define the regularities of lexical combinations in the French interlanguage of Lithuanian learners with level B1. Thanks to the corpus at our disposal, we observed that nomino-adjectival collocations at this level are more frequent than verbal collocations. However, in the percentage of total, the number of collocations only represents a contingent part of the corpus. The corpus also reveals that the present combination of words is not always diversified either by its syntax or by its lexical content, which is sometimes atypical of standard French. Learners choose from a fairly limited number of rather free lexical units. The process of interference and hybridization can be seen as an essential contamination of collocations, both lexically and syntactically. The data received makes it possible to note that collocational competence is insufficient. The results of this study also show that the analysis of collocational constructions can reveal the relationships between competence and performance of speakers.

The cartographic and historiographic traditions interpreting the Greek toponym Erythra Thalassa indicate this expression could designate several water basins in classical historiography, though it is usually rendered univocally as the Red Sea. This research applies cognitive semantics to the history of geography to retrieve the encyclopaedic meaning of the term erythros in relation to its dictionary meaning “red”. Computationally generated lists of frequency from about 50 ancient Greek and Latin oeuvres denote a predominant toponymic use of the term and a fixed collocation in conjunction with thalassa “sea”. Additional statistical data extrapolated from the Septuagint and the Greek New Testament reveal the tendency in the biblical tradition to use exclusively the inflected form erythra in fully fixed collocations with the term thalassa. The paper finds out that the specific shade of red denoted by erythors has been used since the seventh century BCE in a number of other toponyms and ethnonyms to convey the conceptual meaning of “southern”. To comparatively verify this hypothesis, several Greek toponyms incorporating the term leukos – “white” or “western” – are discussed in relation to their relative position in the oikumene. Based on comparative chronologies and diatopic attestations of the phenomenon, the hypothesis that the Turkic colour cardinal points system and the linguistic means to convey it was introduced to Greece during the period of contact with the Scythe people is proposed.

In this paper, we describe a new lexicographic resource for advanced learners of Lithuanian, the Lexical Database of Lithuanian Language Usage, which is the first attempt in Lithuanian lexicography to prepare a description of vocabulary based on the word usage analysis in the particular corpus. The written subpart of the Lithuanian Pedagogic Corpus (approx. 620,000 tokens) was used to develop headword lists and collect word usage information in the form of corpus patterns. In the database, there are 3,700 lexical items, words and multi-word units (compounds, idioms or sayings). For the appr. 700 most frequent words from a shared vocabulary (they appear in texts assigned to A1, A2, B1 and B2 levels, and their frequency in the whole corpus is 100 occurrences and above), we prepared a full-record entry: it includes sense-related corpus patterns with grammatical, semantic and lexical information and the examples illustrating all pattern components. The short-record entry (no patterns, only examples) is prepared for the less frequent words from the shared vocabulary, which are derivationally related to the most frequent headwords. The users are provided with 2,542 derivatives, which are linked to 940 headwords. In the database, 28,550 encoding examples are manually selected for all 3,000 headwords and 700 phrases. We discuss the features of the database, and, particularly, the adopted semi-automated procedure of Corpus Pattern Analysis, which was used for the description of word usage. We evaluate the approach applied, and discuss its advantages for users as well as provide the suggestions for the future improvements of the resource, which can be used as an additional resource in the classroom of Lithuanian as a foreign language, and, together with the available corpora, fill in a gap of usage information in the existing (learner) dictionaries.

The concept of energy is closely related to the building sector and the systems used for heating, implicitly energy saving which is a current problem of both old and new buildings. In this paper a series of numerical simulations were made in Autodesk CFD Simulation in order to study the influence of terminal heating systems over the thermal comfort in rooms. Three case solutions were analysed, as follows: heating a room using a steel radiator, heating a room using an aluminium radiator and heating a room using underfloor heating. The values resulted through numerical simulations for the average room temperature were compared with the values for ideal heating. It was observed that underfloor heating is the most efficient source of heating among those analysed. Compared to heating using radiators, the temperatures along the length and height of the room using underfloor heating are constant and close to the ideal heating. The human body feels the most comfortable due to the uniform distribution of temperature from ground level, on height.

The aim of this paper is to present background information in relation with some fractional-order type operators in the complex plane, which is designed by the fractional-order derivative operator(s). Next we state various implications of that operator and then we show some interesting-special results of those applications.

This paper discusses the factors that can lead to the degradation of masonry structures and provides an overview of the existing techniques for their rehabilitation and consolidation. The degradation of masonry is often related to negative actions of the environment, such as water penetration, freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attacks, and exposure to pollutants. These factors can lead to the appearance of cracks, scaling, erosion, and other types of deterioration of masonry. To preserve masonry structures, frequent monitoring and repairs (locally), preferably immediately after any degradation, are the most important measures. When degradation occurs, prompt action is necessary to prevent further deterioration and to apply appropriate rehabilitation and consolidation methods. Rehabilitating a construction involves replacing or restoring degraded elements to restore functionality to the pre-degradation level and to improve the overall performance of the structure. In contrast, consolidation focuses on strengthening an existing structure by adding new structural elements or by applying specific consolidation techniques with the aim of achieving increased structural capacity. These processes are often interconnected and part of a larger process of restoring or maintaining buildings or structures. Regarding traditional solutions for consolidating masonry elements and structures, these consist of repairing or rebuilding affected areas with classic materials, such as simple or reinforced mortars, welded meshes, dowels, steel bars and profiles. Traditional masonry repair works include filling cracks by injection, partial disassembly of walls followed by reconstruction, dismantling of mortar joints followed by deep filling, stitching of cracks with steel dowels, and reinforcing and facing with mesh or mortar. These techniques are applied according to the degree and type of degradation of the existing structure, as well as local and environmental conditions, with the aim of ensuring efficient and durable consolidation of the structure. The informed decision on the rehabilitation or consolidation solution used and how it is to be applied is usually made after extensive studies and consultations to achieve the best possible result. Generally, masonry structures are considered very resistant and durable, due to their history of over 6000 years. However, proper care and attention to detail are crucial to prevent degradation and to maintain masonry structures in good condition.

The paper shows the influence of some design parameters on the general stability of a single-track railway bridge, having the structure made of circular steel arches with rigid vertical hangers.

The increasing number of international students enrolled in higher education in English-speaking countries has presented the growing need to support their academic writing development. It, however, has often led to the hasty assumption that English language learner (ELL) writers need to quickly adopt the dominant academic writing conventions in order to succeed in an English-speaking academic community. Even though the growing number of scholars have started to pay attention to ELL writers’ diverse writing styles and multiple identities, little research and discussion have taken place on how language practitioners could engage ELL writers in developing their voices as multilingual and multicultural writers. By analyzing a qualitative interview with ten experienced writing consultants and instructors, this paper explores major challenges that ELL writers experience and different strategies that could effectively help them develop their voices as writers in the academic context where English is dominantly used as the medium of instruction. Findings show that while many colleges and universities in English-speaking countries still adopt a monolithic view and label ELL writers as ‘a troubled non-native writer’, it is crucial for writing consultants and instructors to acknowledge ELL writers’ multilingual background and help them to develop their unique voices and achieve sustainable development and progress.