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According to the Vichy Regime, beginning in July 1940, the whole school system, from preschool to university, had a great responsibility in the decline of patriotism justifying the rapid defeat in the face of the German armed forces. As Marshal Petain pointed out in his 20 June 1940 speech: "Since the Victory, a spirit of pleasure prevailed over the spirit of sacrifice. People claimed more than they served. Efforts were saved, and people nowadays have been living in despair." The national Revolution the Regime brought about had to help revive the true values of the Nation, founding its activities on Work, Family and Homeland. Therefore, the "undesirables" (Jews, Freemasons, Communists, ...) had to be rejected from the school system and the dissemination of national values had to prevail. As Serge Jeanneret, one of the Marshal's trustees, noted: "Making the Revolution without Schools is as useful as a sand building" (extracted from Serge Jeanneret, La vérité sur les instituteurs [The Truth about Teachers], Paris, Flammarion, 1941, p. 173). From that point of view, all the educational ministers belonging to the Vichy Regime tried to reform the school system – its organisation, its programmes and staff – in order to train a "newman", even if they sometimes fed projects launched during the interwar period. The Communist teachers and the Freemasons were expelled from schools because the 13 August 1940 Law prohibited them from working in the civil service. Registration as not belonging to secret societies was required of the educational staff. The first Jewish status (3 October 1940), then the second (2 June 1941), excluded Jews from the school system. The Act proclaimed on 21 June 1941 introduced a numerus clausus for the Jews (3%) in universities. The 8 September 1940 Act closed teacher training schools for primary staff, which were replaced by a new training organisation. The competitive examination laureates were integrated into secondary schools, passed the baccalaureate and, for one year, they attended a vocational training institute and had to undergo four different practical trainings. They had a three-month period at the vocational institute, a three-month training period in primary schools, a three-month training period in an agricultural education school or a technical school and, for women, a three-month training period in a housecraft centre, and one month's training in a regional sport centre. The Vichy Regime and the Germans also forbade certain schoolbooks. Consequently, they modified the programmes to assert the stronger continuity of French History with Ancient times. This enabled a reduction of the revolutionary and Republican impact and promoted French geography and homeland. Pupils were invited to love their local and national fatherland. That sense of belonging could induce them to remain attached to their home. The veneration of the leader, the morals for duty and sacrifice, the symbol of eternal femininity serving the family were reasserted in the educational culture. At the same time, the Vichy Regime struggled with secularism and supported private schools, giving numerous grants to Catholic schools thanks to the Law of 2 November 1941. The Minister Jacques Chevalier, with the 6 December 1940 Act, restored duties to God in civic and moral instruction programmes for primary schools (those duties had been suppressed in 1923). The Ripert Act on 15 October 1940 allowed the local education city office to award grants to poor pupils who attended private schools. The Jacques Chevalier Act on 6 January 1941 allowed cities to finance equipment charges and operational costs concerning the private schools (and especially lighting, heating and lunchrooms). The 6 January 1941 Law, by welcoming God in schools and asserting that religious instruction could exceptionally be delivered by a priest in educational buildings, modified one fundamental pillar of the French Republican School. With the 10 March 1941 Law, Jérôme Carcopino, faced with such a great number of opponents, demanded that religious instruction became optional and was studied off school premises. he Vichy Regime also reformed school organisation. Jérôme Carcopino launched the main transformations with the 15 August 1941 Act. Higher Primary Schools became modern secondary schools and were linked to secondary education in the hope of weakening them. At the same time, the selection process was reinforced. Primary schooling was divided into two cycles. The first included a preparatory class (for children aged 6–7 years), an elementary class (7–9-year-olds) and a middle class (from 9- to 11-year-olds). At the end of the first cycle, a diploma for preparatory primary studies was created and prescribed as compulsory if pupils intended to go further in public schooling (i.e. additional classes, primary or secondary high schools); but pupils who succeeded in the scholarship examination were exempted from the diploma. The second cycle (three years from age 11 to age 14) ended with the Primary Certificate. In secondary education, Jérôme Carcopino increased selection and, according to the 15 August 1941 Decree, the principle of free access was suppressed for pupils older than 14 years of age. This multidimensional reform had to face two major obstacles that considerably reduced its implementation. First, the war years were not favourable to educational change – the country was partly and afterwards totally occupied after November 1942. German troops occupied a majority of schools. Shortages were numerous and many teachers were imprisoned in Germany. Labour requisitioning progressively affected the older pupils, mainly student and fresh teachers. The Vichy Regime, after the succession principle failed – the principle was established on 22 June 1942 and proposed that one prisoner came back to France and was traded for three skilled workers sent to Germany – decided, according to the 4 September 1942 Law, to organise forced conscription for male workers (from 18 to 50 years old) and for unmarried women (from 21 to 35 years old). The constraint was then accentuated with the 16 February 1943 Law implementing Mandatory Work Service – Service du Travail Obligatoire STO – for young adults (aged 20–21 and 22-year-old men). All these young men had to be registered and the process made people-requisitioning easier. Therefore, they could definitely be sent to Germany. Second, there was a sort of revolt by the educational staff, who were deeply attached to the Republican values and the Jules Ferry conception of school. Indeed, they strove to reduce the scope of the legislation, rejecting the political choices of the Vichy Regime and also collaboration. If teachers, students and older pupils joined the collaborator parties, most of them remained prudent and followed as little as possible the Vichy Regime's instructions. They commemorated forbidden celebrations and listened to BBC radio. A minority joined the Resistance fighters and got involved in the dissemination of tracts and of clandestine papers. They also committed to information networks, escape organisations or fights against the occupiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the French defeat in May-June 1940, Japan invaded Indochina, a French colony. Then, many women and men decided to create some circuits to resist this occupation. Their mission dealt with the Japanese soldiers in the peninsula, with whom Admiral Decoux's General Government wanted to maintain a modus vivendi in the name of Vichy. The time constraints were different for these groups than for their metropolitan counterparts: they kept on fighting until their destruction on 9 March 1945 and the Japanese overthrow of the peninsula. Although Vichy's implication in Indochina is well known, the anti-Japanese resistance groups from this region and their participation in the Allied victory in and out of mainland France have not been studied recently. This paper intends to focus on the dynamics of these circuits' interventions during their fight in Indochina. How did they maintain contact with Free French Forces despite their geographical isolation? What was their implication in the final victory against the Japanese forces? As with the war itself, Resistance was an international phenomenon which was not limited to European borders but spread throughout the world through contacts with the Allied secret services. This paper will study the construction and materiality of these contacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, subject-matter teachers are commonplace in post-elementary schools. Teachers' specialisation appears as a key characteristic of secondary schools as opposed to the polyvalence of primary school teachers. Historians have already studied the long process of teachers' specialisation, which started, in France as in Prussia (for example), at the beginning of the nineteenth century and developed alongside secondary school modernisation. Those works have usually focused on professional aspects: the structuration of professional groups thanks to the unification of training and recruiting processes, the organisation of teachers within subject-matter associations etc. However, they have not paid much attention to the resistance opposed by other forms of pedagogical organisation, as if polyvalence were were just a backward anomaly, a backward anomaly, doomed to disappear. This paper seeks to shed new light on this question using a comparison between the different forms of post-elementary schooling that existed at the same time in France between the last third of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, when the slow growth of post-elementary schooling was mainly due to the success of subaltern institutions. In those institutions, dedicated to technical education, girls' secondary education, or upper-lower classes' education ("primaire supérieur", "secondaire special"), different kinds of polyvalence or bivalence were experienced in the classrooms. At the same time, specialisation was triumphing in classical secondary education. Why, how and to what extent did specialisation eventually impose itself in these different institutions? To address this question, two types of material are used. On the one hand, the question is studied on a national level, analysing both the legislation and the controversies it arouses in pedagogical and professional reviews. On the other hand, these views and theories are confronted with a prosopography of post-elementary school teachers in one department, Eure-et-Loir, which offers several forms of post-elementary institutions. This question is addressed focusing on literary disciplines (philosophy, French, Latin, Greek, modern languages and history and geography). By narrowing the scope, the intellectual and cultural stakes of the various pedagogical organisations that were implemented or advocated may more easily be grasped. The first part of the article examines the most common (though relatively untested) hypothesis: there was just one strategy for those who advocated the promotion of subaltern types of post-elementary schooling as part of a democratisation process, and this strategy was reproducing the model of the elite institution, secondary classical education, including its pedagogical organisation, starting with subject-matter teachers. The chronology of the changes, the content of the debates, as well as a comparative inquiry into teachers' remuneration induces us to discard this hypothesis as insufficient if not irrelevant. For girls' secondary education, a trade-off may be observed between equalisation (of salaries, rights etc.) and pedagogical alignment. For the other institutions, there was no lack of advocates for the specificity of the pedagogy or of the institution; however, specialisation was usually considered a process that could ameliorate the quality of teaching in these institutions without renouncing its specificity. In fact, in the period under study, the louder advocates for less specialised teachers came from secondary classical education itself: the specialisation process as well as the fragmentation of the class schedule had pedagogic inconveniences, abundantly noticed and commented on by subject-matter teachers themselves. In the second part, these critics and the two main alternatives suggested by the teachers are examined. The first is linked with the Progressive Education movement ("Education nouvelle" in French). The École des Roches, a private institution, tested an original organisation that combined the tradition of the humanities with the modern characteristic of "Éducation nouvelle": there was only one teacher for history, geography, French, Latin and Greek. The teacher was thus enabled to practise a pedagogy of interest, as advocated by Ovide Decroly. The second alternative was advocated by some modern language teachers: if modern language teachers could teach French as well as a modern language, this pedagogic organisation could give strong unity to the until then defective "modern" curriculum (without Latin). The third part turns towards the effective organisation of post-elementary schools in Eure-et-Loir. To what extent were these alternative conceptions of pedagogical organisation implemented? The analysis of individual records of teachers suggests several results. First of all, in small institutions – be they classical secondary institutions like "collèges" or modern ones like "écoles primaires supérieures" – specialisation of services was a luxury that most teachers could not afford. Most of the time, they had to teach several subjects, even if they had been trained for just one. However, polyvalence was not used as an opportunity to make connections between the subjects. Class schedules rarely enabled teachers to use polyvalence as a way to teach several subjects to the same pupils. More often, polyvalence was used by the administration as an expedient that some teachers explicitly tried to escape, for example by asking for a move to a bigger institution. This mundane reality of small institutions invites us to pay renewed attention to teacher training and its regulation during the same period. At the end of the nineteenth century, teachers' specialisation had been inextricably linked with the modernisation of universities through the specialisation of the "licence de lettres" in 1880. When this model proved to be partially irrelevant for a significant proportion of post-elementary schools, how did universities react? Were universities fit for something other than training specialised teachers? The answer is yes. The curriculum organisation of the licence opened up several possibilities for training polyvalent teachers. This perspective was still looming at the end of the 1930s. The curricula of the different post-elementary settings analysed in this article shared the same characteristics: they worked as "serial codes" not as "integrated codes", to quote Basil Bernstein. Therefore the specialisation, bivalence or polyvalence of the teachers did not have much influence, in itself, on the degree of integration of the curriculum. From this perspective, specialisation could probably guarantee better teaching of the subject matters. However, polyvalent teachers were better suited to small schools than specialist ones. Considering demographic and geographic constraints, there was a clear trade-off between specialisation of teachers and separation of publics. In small cities, it was necessary either to mix the pupils to specialise the teachers, or to accept some kind of polyvalence to keep different types of students separated; the debate was still open during the 1930s. School massification, coeducation and the baby-boom era rapidly settled the matter for small cities after the Second World War, giving way to an effective specialisation of teachers. But the question remained open, until the end of the 1970s, for rural settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with youth organizations in Alsace, a region standing at the crossroads between France and Germany. It focuses on how the issue of nationhood was constructed within these youth groups during the first half of the twentieth century. Our hypothesis is that these socio-educational organizations, training grounds for autonomy and responsibility, are based on a principle of civic engagement from their young members. To this effect, in post-First World War Alsace, these organizations served as vehicles for the reintegration of this region into France, a process that cannot, however, be considered without respect for local social and cultural specificities. In other words, with regard to the activist direction of these movements, a local socio-political configuration seems to far outweigh the ideology of each group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abdelkébir Khatibi (Maroc) and Dany Laferrière (Haïti–Québec) belong to different cultural areas, but share the same linguistic practice in a postcolonial context. They are also similar in their conception of writing literature in a transitional world for a global age where the novel, as a Western form in its origin and under its authority, and also as an access point to modernity for the writers of the global South, aims at a certain form of transnational order. Both of these writers reject the dogmatic definition of identity from the perspective of an origin and of a supposed secular pact between fiction and nation. This paper examines the shift between francophone global fiction by way of a "regional criticism." However, this emerging global rhetoric, recently called "littérature-monde," may appear as a new utopian paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on Annie Ernaux's Mémoire de fille, and drawing insight from both a recent interview with the author and from historian Arlette Farge's work on the use of archives, this paper considers briefly how Ernaux uses her archived letters to give voice to her "former self" and to a generation of girls whose public behavior was inevitably subject to evaluation and judgment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether the calibrated parameter values for two rainfall–runoff models based on historical observed data can be used to reliably predict runoff responses to changes in future climate inputs. Analyses are carried out using historical monthly climate and runoff data from 27 catchments in West and Central Africa. Better performances are obtained when the models are calibrated on a dry period to predict runoff in a wet period. Similarly, it is easier for the models calibrated on a period of large hydroclimatic variability to predict runoff in a period of small hydroclimatic variability than the contrary. This paper tests also the assumption that transferability of rainfall–runoff models, variable hydroclimatic conditions, and local sensitivity of the model parameters can be linked. The inconclusive results still show variability according to the chosen efficiency criteria and selected periods. All these results indicate that the transfer of model parameters from one period to another can introduce a significant error in runoff simulations, which means increased uncertainty in the assessment of impact of climate and environmental changes, an essential question for West and Central Africa.Editeur M.C. Acreman; Editeur associé Gil Mahé [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper studies the New Novel's rhetoric (Nouveau Roman) in order to requalify, thanks to a dialectical approach, its positive definition in a negative way. Through a philosophical critique of the novelistic discourse, the aim is to highlight the theoretical power of novels which pay attention, in a rhetorical perspective, to the body thematic, the body considered as a fundamental and full component of a subjectivity determined by material and external structures. The New Novel, analyzed first as an expression of a "sensible objectivity," gives rise to a materialist and negative dialectic and has to be understood as an immanent critique of social, political, and historical structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pygmalion (the complex of Pygmalion), Balthasar (the Feast of Balthasar), and Arcimboldo (the painter) present three different models of association between "Sense and Senses" in the novelistic writing of History. This paper argues that by shifting from one model to another, the contemporary fiction of History becomes a kind of "istorical novel" (without h), which embodies the "fiduciary paradigm" at work in current times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to quantify the difficulties in the transplantation and development of argan tree in the Algerian Western Sahara. A diagnosis of the regeneration by reforestation was established on two experimental stations: Tindouf and Adrar, during six consecutive years. The relation between the bioclimatic conditions and the rates of resumption, the phenology and the growth of Argania spinosa were analysed. The results showed the possibilities of introducing the species by seeding in both sites of plantations which belong to a dry and hyper dry Mediterranean continental and semi continental climate. The success rates vary between 26.4 and 33.8%, in Adrar and Tindouf respectively. Our results also showed the effect of watering on the growth of plants. Indeed, a regular regime of irrigation gave plants with an average height of 185 cm, in the station of Adrar, against 125 cm to Tindouf. The monthly description of phenological stages of the Argan tree represents a biennial cycle with delayed flowering of the floral buds during the hottest summer period of the year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distance and dissension that characterized the relations between the internal and external resistance movements have had a deep and lasting impact on memories of the Second World War. For decades, the French 'maquis' played a central role in maintaining this dichotomy between the two Resistances. There were nonetheless links between them. The British, American and French archives reveal that some of the Free French worked tirelessly to support the internal Resistance and its maquis. Their negotiations on behalf of the internal Resistance during summit meetings are well known. This paper addresses a lower level of the hierarchy, examining how the Free French in charge of liaisons with the internal Resistance fulfilled their task. Therefore, the networks between Free France, the French maquis and the Allies are the focus of this study. By investigating the identities of those involved in this cooperation, it sheds light on the connections and solidarity which were built among the French maquis, London and Algiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The strong socio-economic growth of Quito has led to significant projects of inter-basin transfers, intensifying high-altitude resources mobilization in environmentally sensitive areas and with accelerated melting of glaciers. In order to study various future scenarios, we propose modelling of the climate/glacier/hydrology/water resources management continuum, applied to Andean basins. Using the tool Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP21), we developed: (1) semi-distributed hydro-climate modelling with monthly data using regional homogenization (vector method); (2) glacier modelling of water production and inter-annual evolution; (3) modelling in hydrological units depending on land cover; and (4) water management modelling distinguishing water rights, allocation and use. In this paper, we mainly present results of monthly hydrological calibrations (1963–2006), studying, in particular, the equifinality of various parameter settings. We show flexibility, robustness and limits of the proposed modelling, contributing to identification of uncertainties for evaluation of future scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Au terme desProlégomènes(1900), Husserl formule son idée de la logique pure en la structurant sur deux niveaux: l'un, supérieur, de la logique formelle fondé transcendantalement et d'un point de vue épistémologique par l'autre, inférieur, d'une morphologie des catégories. Seul le second de ces deux niveaux est traité dans lesRecherches logiques(1901), tandis que les travaux théoriques en logique formelle menés par Husserl à la même époque en paraissent plutôt indépendants. Cet article est consacré à ces travaux tels que recueillis dans les appendices VI-X du volume 12 desHusserliana(1970a). Mettant en évidence la théorie de la signification qui les sous-tend par le biais d'une analyse de la question dite de l'extension des systèmes d'axiomes et de sa résolution au moyen d'une notion decomplétude, son objectif est d'expliciter les modalités de l'intégration de la logique formelle dans l'idée husserlienne de la logique pure au tournant duxxsiècle. When formulating his idea of pure logic in the Prolegomena[Husserl, E. 1900. Logische Untersuchungen. T. I : Prolegomena zur reinen Logik, Halle: Niemeyer. Éd. fr.: Husserl 1959; chap. XI], Husserl configures it on two levels: the superior one of formal logic, concerned with the axiomatization of mathematical structures; the inferior one of transcendantal logic grounding the former from an epistemological standpoint (i.e. as a science and in terms of theory of knowledge). Nevertheless, only the latter is taken into consideration in the Logical Investigations[Husserl, E. 1901. Logische Untersuchungen. T. II: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis, Halle: Niemeyer. Éd. fr.: Husserl 1961/1963], while the theoretical work on formal logic that Husserl conducted at the same time seems at first glance rather independent. This paper is about that work as collected in the appendices VI–X toHusserliana 12 [Husserl, E. 1970a. Philosophie der Arithmetik. Mit ergänzenden Texten (1890–1901). Sous la dir. de Lothar Eley. (Husserliana 12). Den Haag: Nijhoff. Éd. orig.: Husserl 1972a, 1975]. And it aims at explicating how Husserl's conception formal logic fits in with his idea of pure logic. After an introductive recall about the young Husserl's evolution (Section 1), such a goal is reached here in three steps: first, by a presentation of Husserl's setting up of formal logic in 1900–1901 revolving around systems of axioms and formal domains with a focus on their linkage (Section 2); then, by the formulation of the question dealing with that very linkage, that is, the question of the extension of systems of axioms based on the so-called ‘problem of imaginary in mathematics’ focusing Husserl's theoretical research on formal logic at that time (Section 3); finally, by an analysis of Husserl's solution to those problem and question via his notion ofdefinitenessof systems of axioms and his conception of their completeness (Section 4). Realized from a historico-epistemological perspective, that systematic reconstruction highlights the theory meaning underlying Husserl's conception of formal logic and according to which, precisely, that latter integrates his idea of pure logic at the turn of the twentieth century (Section 5). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses Romania’s relationship with the communist past. It is structured around three themes: official forgetting and belated condemnation, the pervading discourse of NGOs which focuses on the victims of communism, and the resurgence of nostalgia in opinion polls, seen as an expression of the problems of living in a democracy. In this context, the author examines visible forms of cultural memory which have appeared in recent years (the 2000s), in particular the role played by the nostalgic gaze. We find thus different types of nostalgia: social, commercial and tourism. We can then question the role played by this nostalgic gaze in works by Romanian contemporary artists and filmmakers who produce memory art. As a specific form of cultural memory, memory art seeks to sketch out an image of the past which is more comprehensive. The article describes the different forms nostalgia has taken in Romania in recent years and juxtaposes this with the most important works of art, following three themes: the obsessional portrait of Ceaușescu, personal, even autobiographical memory, and the residues of communism as depicted inProjet 1990. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]