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Sender-Recipient Instances in Treatises on Ponds from the 16th and 17th Centuries The paper discusses the ways in which sender–recipient strategy is realized in old treatises on pond economy. It focuses on the indices of textual relations between the master of the pond art and the student. The analysis has shown that in both treatises, the recipient is that communicative instance which plays a much more significant role than the sender. The organization and arrangement of the textual space serves the good of the recipient. The sender employs for this purpose desiderative constructions, lexical indices of cohesion of the utterance, and semantic-syntactic parallelism of elements. The authors of the treatises skilfully include an iconographic component in their lecture; Strumieński even refers to specific objects in the extra-linguistic reality.

Baudouin de Courtenay: A Precursor of More than Structural Linguistics The paper contrasts Jan Baudouin de Courtenay’s approach to language with Neogrammarian views on the one hand, and Ferdinand de Saussure’s approach on the other. Similarly to the Swiss linguist, de Courtenay understood language as a system, but his views on the langue–parole and synchrony– diachrony relationships were more complex. He can also be considered a precursor of sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics, and even gender linguistics.

The Evolution of Criteria for a Grammatical Classification of Lexemes (Relative Pronouns vs Conjunctions) The paper discusses the evolution of the part-of-speech classification of Polish lexemes, and presents the changes in the criteria used to distinguish relative pronouns and conjunctions. The characterization has been based on important works in the field of theoretical Polish grammar, including textbooks, from the beginning of the 20th to the beginning of the 21st century. The author distinguishes two breakthroughs in the history of grammar, the first caused by the influence on research into grammar of the connotation theory, and the other by the influence of the metatext theory.

Formations with the -s suffix: normals, terytorials, totals In recent years, there appeared in Polish a series of words ending in -als. One of them is the word millennials, a lexical borrowing from English, which has been depluralized in Polish and is represented by the forms millennials – milllennialsi. Other words with a similar structure include lokals, normals, naturals, specjals, terytorials, totals. A part of them have arisen as a result of word-formation with the English suffix -s. The paper contains an analysis of these words, and attempts to answer the question how these words were created, and in what meanings they function in contemporary Polish.

Functions of words of the jakby-type in unofficial and official spoken utterances: based on corpus analysis The goal of the paper is to describe the function of words of the jakby-type in unofficial and official utterances, compared to their lexicographic descriptions. The analysis has been based on transcripts of oral examination interviews, and unofficial conversations. It revealed the differences in the functional load of words of the jakby-type in these two types of conversations.

Semantic variations of the concept of kołtun ‘polish plait’ in selected text of polish and lithuanian cultures The paper discusses semantic changes and stylistic derivation of the cultural concept of kołtun ‘Polish plait’ (Plica polonica) in Polish and Lithuanian. Although today it is impossible to meet a person with a kołtun on their head, the concept itself, as an element of socially established knowledge of the world, has survived and is still used in various discourses (ranging from dialectal texts and folklore, belles-lettres and journalistic writing, to contemporary Internet messages), to communicate different meanings, both literal and metaphorical. There are similarities and differences between the conceptualizations of kołtun in texts of Polish and Lithuanian cultures. The unifying element is the perception of kołtun as a formation of entangled hair or a mysterious disease that is inscribed into the folk system of beliefs and magical rituals. On the other hand, what sets the analysed concept apart in the two languages, is a much richer resource of folk and colloquial forms (compounds, hybrid words, phrasemes) in Lithuanian, and in addition, the lack of negative evaluation of kołtun in Lithuanian, whereas in Polish the word is often used to describe a backward, small-minded person.

On the (in)visibility of the leader in a meeting with a witness of history: a preliminary typology of roles that initiate narrative interviews The paper reflects on sender-recipient relations characteristic for the participants of a narrative interview with a witness of history. The research material comprises 1931 verbal activities, collected in the Archive of Oral History of The Warsaw Rising Museum, of people who conducted 32 meetings with participants of the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The application of the interactive concept of text allowed us to create a preliminary typology of the activities of meeting leaders, viz. to identify four types of initiation: the opening, the complementary, the deepening and ordering, and the reactive one. Further analyses led to the identification of roles taken on by people who conduct meetings with witnesses of history, which we named the journalist, the researcher, and the friend.

At the sources of polish logopedic terminology: towards anagnostic resesarch The paper is a preliminary presentation of the concept of a research project Diachronic Aspects of Polish Logopedic Terminology, carried out by members of the Department of Polish Language of the Pedagogical University in Cracow. The multiauthored study briefly characterizes the beginnings of speech therapy as an independent scientific discipline, and the directions of its development in the past 50 years. It draws attention to the deficiencies and inconsistencies in the usage and understanding of specialist terms in contemporary logopedics, while setting as the primary goal of the enterprise an attempt to standardize Polish terminology related to speech disorders. The basis for this should be the etymology of the terms in question, as well as excerpts from medical and anatomical lexicons and source materials which employ the vocabulary that became the foundation of the logopedic jargon.

Why did Balts and Slavs count kinship in knees, or the etymology of slav. Kolěno ‘knee; tribe’ and lith. Kẽlis ‘knee; tribe’ OCS. kolěno ‘knee; tribe, generation’ (cf. Polish pokolenie ‘generation’) and Lith. kẽlis ‘knee; joint in a plant; tribe; degree of kinship’ come from old adjectives with possessive suffixes (-ěn- in Slavic and -ija- in Baltic). Their primary meaning was ‘a joint in the body’ (*‘a rotating part of the body’). Both were formed from nouns with the meaning ‘wheel’ (OCS. kolo, kolese ‘wheel’, Old Prussian kelan ‘wheel’, Latvian duceles ‘chaise’; IDE. *kwelh1- ‘to turn, to rotate’). The hypothesis proposed in this paper explains the semantic relationship between Slav. kolěno ‘knee; tribe, generation’ and Proto-Slav. *kel-nŭ- > *čelnŭ- > Slovenian člèn // Serbo-Croatian člȃn ‘joint; ankle, talus’. Assuming that the meaning ‘joint’ was the original one, OCS. kolěno ‘tribe, generation’ and Lith. kẽlis ‘degree in relationship; tribe’ can be interpreted as old terms of customary law in the field of succession. The counting of kinship by enumeration of body parts from the head to the middle fingernail has been preserved in Middle Low German customary law, so-called “Sachsenspiegel”. The hypothesis is supported by numerous parallels: Lith. sąnarys ‘a joint in the body; (OLith.) ‘generation’, Lith. stráipsnis ‘body part; (OLith.) generation’, OPr. streipstan ‘body part; generation’, Middle High German Gelied ‘body part; generation’, and Middle Low German lede ‘a joint in the body; body part; degree of kinship’.

Co-saying. On the function of ellipsis in general polish, and in Bolesław Leśmian’s poetry The goal of the paper is to identify the function of ellipsis in general Polish, and in Bolesław Leśmian’s poetry. This author assumes that ellipsis corresponds to a specific intonation, has a code character, and belongs to the group of dialogic perspective operators (cf. Wajszczuk 2005). Its function is simply an appeal to the addressee, to complete the utterance with specific content by themselves. The unit is used creatively by Bolesław Leśmian. In his poetry, co-saying serves to express the transcendence of three boundaries set by the oppositions I : you, here : there, yes : no.

Lemko etymologies: part 5 The present paper is the fifth part in the Lemko etymologies series; analysed in it are words beginning with letters Л, М, Н, О: ластівниця, люштати, лябати, лябдати, лянкорити ся, маляґа, маранча, масеса, маскати, мджурити, медера, металец, микытаня, м(л)юзґра, молиґати, мocур, мотлочыти, муцикы, нарабяти, нарубы, нахыр, нездобачкы, непек, ніверити, нозгри/нозґрі, нютер, обатурити ся, обгартати, обтавкати, одкырхнути ся, одразити, одчезнути, озниця, окара, окрясти, осуга, отлак. Authors attempt to establish the origin of those words, taking into account data from etymological, historical, and dialectal dictionaries of Slavic languages and dialects, as well as from the neighbouring non-Slavic languages, thereby outlining a broad comparative background. They propose additions and corrections to previous etymological findings regarding some of the discussed words.

The aim of this paper is to study variations and continuities in the targets of multi-ethnic jokes in the Russian language through time in three consecutive periods: Soviet era, post-socialist years and the present time. Multiethnic jokes are a subtype of ethnic canned jokes that feature two or more ethnonyms in one text, three being the most usual number of nationalities featured in the text and having, therefore, a tripartite structure. The different nationalities are placed in a special situation that usually entails some kind of competition between them. Our specific goals in this article are: 1) to analyse the position of the nationalities mentioned in the tripartite textual structure of the joke and their function within the text of the joke and to study structural variations through time; 2) to determine the ethnic scripts that are frequently ascribed to these targets and their changes from Soviet to present times; 3) to identify the nationalities that appear in multi-ethnic jokes in Russian and to detect changes in this cast of characters, if any, through the three chronological periods previously stated. The analysis of a corpus of 359 multi-ethnic jokes in the Russian language reveals that multi-ethnic jokes in Russian undergo few changes through times. Although they feature different nationalities in one text, multi-ethnic jokes in the Russian language are an example of reflexive ethnic humour, since they target Russians themselves.

The paper focuses on an evaluation of statutory provisions relating to the profession of sworn translator in Poland. The Act on the Profession of Sworn Translator and its associated statutory instruments have been in force since 27 January 2005. After more than 13 years of operation of this legal framework, it is worth summing up whether the legal solutions put forward by the Polish legislature make it easier to practice the profession of sworn translator. The author discusses, inter alia, the recommendations of the Panel for Review and Assessment of Operation of the Act on the Profession of Sworn Translator, formed on 21 July 2015 by the Minister of Justice, and the legislative changes proposed by translation experts in order to improve the status and financial situation of sworn translators. Moreover, he suggests several solutions which – in his opinion based on many years’ experience as a practising sworn translator and a certified translation theoretician – would greatly facilitate the work of sworn translators and would raise its quality.

In the paper, the author undertakes a contrasting comparison of Polish industry guidelines for the preparation of certified translations contained in the Sworn translator’s code with the following German guidelines: Richtlinien und Hinweise für die Anfertigung von Urkunden-übersetzungen and Empfehlungen für die Anfertigung bestätigter/ beglaubigter Übersetzungen. Next, the results of the above comparison are referred to the certified translation of Polish and German court judgments.

Taking into consideration the characteristics of the Hungarian culture, language and legal system, this paper aims to study complex interrogation strategies used by Hungarian judges. This research is based on my corpus consisting of 10 Hungarian criminal trials recorded by a voice recorder, and written notes from direct observations. The analysis has a complex nature, since it relies on the results of (1) linguistics, because the main goal is to present effective interrogation strategies (2) law, because it is crucial to start the research with understanding the function of the discourse type being analysed:the question strategies are intrinsically connected to the institutional role and the legal system by nature, and (3) psychology has also a great role in the investigation of interrogation in two main aspects: the testimony is based on memories and interrogation has an interpersonal part which should not be omitted in discovering the effective question strategies. This research offers rare data to the courtroom interrogation strategies and the results may also have a significant role in legal practice.

Taking into consideration the characteristics of the Hungarian culture, language and legal system, this paper aims to study complex interrogation strategies used by Hungarian judges. This research is based on my corpus consisting of 10 Hungarian criminal trials recorded by a voice recorder, and written notes from direct observations. The analysis has a complex nature, since it relies on the results of (1) linguistics, because the main goal is to present effective interrogation strategies (2) law, because it is crucial to start the research with understanding the function of the discourse type being analysed:the question strategies are intrinsically connected to the institutional role and the legal system by nature, and (3) psychology has also a great role in the investigation of interrogation in two main aspects: the testimony is based on memories and interrogation has an interpersonal part which should not be omitted in discovering the effective question strategies. This research offers rare data to the courtroom interrogation strategies and the results may also have a significant role in legal practice.

Taking into consideration the characteristics of the Hungarian culture, language and legal system, this paper aims to study complex interrogation strategies used by Hungarian judges. This research is based on my corpus consisting of 10 Hungarian criminal trials recorded by a voice recorder, and written notes from direct observations. The analysis has a complex nature, since it relies on the results of (1) linguistics, because the main goal is to present effective interrogation strategies (2) law, because it is crucial to start the research with understanding the function of the discourse type being analysed:the question strategies are intrinsically connected to the institutional role and the legal system by nature, and (3) psychology has also a great role in the investigation of interrogation in two main aspects: the testimony is based on memories and interrogation has an interpersonal part which should not be omitted in discovering the effective question strategies. This research offers rare data to the courtroom interrogation strategies and the results may also have a significant role in legal practice.

Any act has certain goal, and the judge’s trial discourse is a structured and layered goal system. Judges normally adopt some discourse strategies to reach their trial goals. Based on our trial corpora, we find judges commonly adopt some strong goal-driven discourse strategies, such as question-answer strategy, power control strategy, presupposition strategy, repetition strategy, and interruption strategy, etc., in order to realize their trial goals as well as discourse goals. Strategy in effect refers to means, with which the goal of discourse is to be achieved. As words are intended for both the expression and the achievement of goals, the choice of a means or a strategy relies on the decision of the goal. Only from this perspective is the link between strategy and goal meaningful, and in this sense, strategy means rhetoric. This paper aims to study the judge’s discourse strategies adopted in trials in Chinese courtrooms from the perspective of the goal principle.

Any act has certain goal, and the judge’s trial discourse is a structured and layered goal system. Judges normally adopt some discourse strategies to reach their trial goals. Based on our trial corpora, we find judges commonly adopt some strong goal-driven discourse strategies, such as question-answer strategy, power control strategy, presupposition strategy, repetition strategy, and interruption strategy, etc., in order to realize their trial goals as well as discourse goals. Strategy in effect refers to means, with which the goal of discourse is to be achieved. As words are intended for both the expression and the achievement of goals, the choice of a means or a strategy relies on the decision of the goal. Only from this perspective is the link between strategy and goal meaningful, and in this sense, strategy means rhetoric. This paper aims to study the judge’s discourse strategies adopted in trials in Chinese courtrooms from the perspective of the goal principle.

Zenon Klemensiewicz and the Syntax of Polish and Slavic Dialects The paper discusses two issues: 1) Z. Klemensiewicz’s previously unknown research in the area of dialectal syntax, and 2) his dispute with J. Bauer, regarding the inclusion of syntax in Ogólnosłowiański atlas językowy (‘General Slavic linguistic atlas’). It has transpired that the collections of the Archive of Science of PAN and PAU in Cracow contain Klemensiewicz’s materials for Zarys składni polskich dialektów (‘An outline of the syntax of Polish dialects’), excerpted from K. Nitsch’s Wybór polskich tekstów gwarowych (‘A selection of Polish dialectal texts’), as well as the manuscript of the polemic with Bauer’s proposal. It seems probable that, by describing the syntax of Polish dialects, Klemensiewicz wanted to capture the characteristics of the syntax of spoken Polish.

The “Long Duration” of Teaching Polish, According to Zenon Klemensiewicz Zenon Klemensiewicz is the creator of the theoretical and practical discipline of teaching Polish. Inspired by the 90th anniversary of the publication of his fundamental work Dydaktyka nauki o języku ojczystym (‘Teaching the science of the native tongue’), these considerations pose, from the point of view of a contemporary teacher, the question about the timeliness and longevity of Klemensiewicz’s views on linguistic education in schools. To answer them, we attempted to recover the tracks he left as a researcher and as a teacher. They proved to be many, and durable. They are listed here, and their existence is taken as proof that through the vehicle of his works referred to in this paper, Prof. Z. Klemensiewicz inscribed himself on the plane that does not become obsolete, the plane of “long duration” of language teaching. They mark a path that is worth following, because it clearly shows both the sense of continuation, and the need for change as guarantors and operators of progress.

Zenon Klemensiewicz in His Time. From the Memories of a Pupil The author, a witness of the last twenty years of Professor Zenon Klemensiewicz’s life and activity, reminds the importance of his person for the period he helped to shape. He went beyond linguistics, and became a separate value of cultural, moral, and national life. He symbolized the model of a Polish patriot and researcher, heir to humanistic traditions, a romanticist and positivist in one. The paper passes down the author’s and the milieu’s memories of the rich and complex personality of the master and the boss, his extraordinary didactic and rhetoric talent, it is an introduction to a personal and academic biography of a typical Polish intellectual determined by two world wars.

Lemko Etymologies. Part IV The present paper is the fourth part in the Lemko etymologies series; analysed in it are words beginning with letter К: кавеніти, кавери, кадивай (кадиваль), карати ся, каренчыти, каслик, кєпешыти ся, кіпнина, кырмак, кырнак, кыртавый, кыявчати, клапец, клаптош, клеветати, ключы, кобан (кобаня, кобиця), ковырдати, конда (кондя), копырдати ся, коцюрба, кракоч, ку- жівка, курділь. Authors attempt to establish the origin of those words, taking into account data from etymological, historical, and dialectal dictionaries of Slavic languages and dialects, as well as from the neighbouring non-Slavic languages, thereby outlining a broad comparative background. They propose additions and corrections to previous etymological findings regarding some of the discussed words.

The Honorificative Formula in 18th c. Polish Letters The paper discusses, from the formal, semantic, pragma- and sociolinguistic point of view, the honorificative formula that constituted one of the components of the final part of an epistolary Polish text of the 18th century. Most commonly, it took the shape of a conventionalized phrase which consisted of the preposition z (‘with’), an adjective, and a noun; e.g. z prawdziwym szacunkiem ‘with true respect’. The formula was syntactically dependent, as it was part of a larger whole – nearly always the subscription, i.e. the broadly understood signature of the author of the letter. The lexical composition of the formula showed considerable diversity. The nouns that constituted it include estymacja ‘esteem’, poważenie ‘reverence’, szacunek ‘respect’, weneracja ‘veneration’, and others. The attributes that described the main stem of the formula were also characterized by notable semantic diversity. Moreover, the honorificative formula could also appear in the form of a Latin quotation, e.g. profundo cultu. The usage of the formula depended on social and situational factors, namely it was used in letters to people of equal or higher social status (e.g. to members of princely families), as well as in highly official situations.

The Structure of Creole Verb Forms The study examines the morphosyntactic features of a creole verb system, as well as the principles of its functioning. It focuses on the markers of tense, mood and aspect (the TMA system) that, due to the uniqueness of the system’s functioning, have been investigated for many decades. The examples quoted in the paper come from Santiaguense, the oldest form of Cape Verde Creole that developed in the 16th century on the lexical basis of Portuguese.

Any act has certain goal, and the judge’s trial discourse is a structured and layered goal system. Judges normally adopt some discourse strategies to reach their trial goals. Based on our trial corpora, we find judges commonly adopt some strong goal-driven discourse strategies, such as question-answer strategy, power control strategy, presupposition strategy, repetition strategy, and interruption strategy, etc., in order to realize their trial goals as well as discourse goals. Strategy in effect refers to means, with which the goal of discourse is to be achieved. As words are intended for both the expression and the achievement of goals, the choice of a means or a strategy relies on the decision of the goal. Only from this perspective is the link between strategy and goal meaningful, and in this sense, strategy means rhetoric. This paper aims to study the judge’s discourse strategies adopted in trials in Chinese courtrooms from the perspective of the goal principle.

In our paper, we present the results of the second phase of a study conducted in collaboration between two higher education institutions in Hungary with different types of translator training: a postgraduate (MA) course at the University of Szeged (SZTE), Faculty of Arts, and a postgraduate specialist training course at Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest (PPKE JÁK), Faculty of Law and Political Sciences. At SZTE, students do not have any legal qualifications, while at PPKE JÁK, students are all qualified legal professionals. Our main research question was whether there are significant differences in the quality of legal translations carried out by students with and without legal qualifications. We analyzed and evaluated the global (holistic) quality of the translations using a five-point scale as suggested by Kiraly (1995: 83), and compared types of errors made by the two groups of students with the help of a special error typology. Our results show that students with legal qualifications perform better in terms of both global and analytic indicators, with significantly less errors made in information transfer and in legal register.

In our paper, we present the results of the second phase of a study conducted in collaboration between two higher education institutions in Hungary with different types of translator training: a postgraduate (MA) course at the University of Szeged (SZTE), Faculty of Arts, and a postgraduate specialist training course at Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest (PPKE JÁK), Faculty of Law and Political Sciences. At SZTE, students do not have any legal qualifications, while at PPKE JÁK, students are all qualified legal professionals. Our main research question was whether there are significant differences in the quality of legal translations carried out by students with and without legal qualifications. We analyzed and evaluated the global (holistic) quality of the translations using a five-point scale as suggested by Kiraly (1995: 83), and compared types of errors made by the two groups of students with the help of a special error typology. Our results show that students with legal qualifications perform better in terms of both global and analytic indicators, with significantly less errors made in information transfer and in legal register.

In our paper, we present the results of the second phase of a study conducted in collaboration between two higher education institutions in Hungary with different types of translator training: a postgraduate (MA) course at the University of Szeged (SZTE), Faculty of Arts, and a postgraduate specialist training course at Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest (PPKE JÁK), Faculty of Law and Political Sciences. At SZTE, students do not have any legal qualifications, while at PPKE JÁK, students are all qualified legal professionals. Our main research question was whether there are significant differences in the quality of legal translations carried out by students with and without legal qualifications. We analyzed and evaluated the global (holistic) quality of the translations using a five-point scale as suggested by Kiraly (1995: 83), and compared types of errors made by the two groups of students with the help of a special error typology. Our results show that students with legal qualifications perform better in terms of both global and analytic indicators, with significantly less errors made in information transfer and in legal register.

Most interpretational problems in law pertain to the meaning of words. However, in this paper I address problems caused in Polish courts by grammar (namely: syntax and inflexion) of legal provisions. One can distinguish five main sources of grammatical issues in judicial interpretation of law: syntax of a sentence (i.e. order of words), conjunctive words (i.e. i, lub), punctuation marks (i.e. comma, semicolon, dash), nominal grammatical categories (i.e. number, gender), verbal grammatical categories (i. e. aspect, tense, mood). Traditional Polish canons of interpretation offer no clues on how to deal with such issues, stating only that statutes should be construed in accordance with the rules of grammar. In fact, cases in which such interpretational issues occur, are decided in a highly incoherent manner. The courts tend to feel a tension between grammatical form of a provision and its purpose, function, or other extra-linguistic values. I think the main reason of such controversy is a very limited vision of grammar shared by the courts, stemmed from primary school rather than contemporary linguistic theories.

The paper aims to analyse and compare the interpretative function of legislative history in the judicial activity of the European Court of Justice and Polish courts.

The focus of this paper is centered on the translation of German and Polish court names. Based on a thorough analysis of the translation terms used in legal literature and dictionaries, the author concludes that the court names are often being translated in a way that makes it impossible for the reader to correctly identify the institution in question, thus undermining the comprehensibility of the target texts significantly.

The paper reports on a survey into the linguistic needs of law professionals in four European countries, with the aim of identifying their views on the importance and their use of foreign language skills as well as their preferences for ELP course content. The data, obtained from a questionnaire survey of 536 legal professionals from Poland, the Czech Republic, Croatia and Germany, show that while the respondents agree on many of the major points, there are also some differences conditioned by the respondents’ age and the specific tasks they perform in the legal profession. The article argues that these variables have to be taken into consideration in the LSP context because they determine some of the specific needs that need to be addressed in Legal English instruction. It is suggested that the findings about the lawyers’ self-perceived importance and preferred styles of learning are highly relevant for LSP practitioners, particularly when designing Legal English programmes and testing materials.

The aim of this paper is to establish the repertoire and distribution of verbal and adverbial exponents of epistemic modality in English- and Polish-language judgments passed by the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) and non-translated judgments passed by the Supreme Court of Poland (SN). The study applies a model for categorizing exponents of epistemicity with regard to their (i) level (high-, medium- and low-level of certainty, necessity or possibility expressed by the markers; primary dimension), (ii) perspective (own vs. reported perspective), (iii) opinion (based either on facts or beliefs) and (iv) time (the embedding of epistemic markers in sentences relating to the past, present or future) (contextual dimensions). It examines the degree of intra-generic convergence of translated EU judgments and non-translated national judgments in terms of the employment of epistemic markers, as well as the degree of authoritativeness of judicial argumentation, and determines whether the frequent use of epistemic markers constitutes a generic feature of judgments. The research material consists of a parallel corpus of English- and Polish-language versions of 200 EU judgments and a corpus of 200 non-translated domestic judgments. The results point to the high salience and differing patterns of use of epistemic markers in both EU and national judgments. The frequent use of high-level epistemic markers boosts the authoritativeness of judicial reasoning.

This paper applies a structured legal-linguistic profiling approach to EU “staff representation bodies” as a way to access domains that lie behind the public face of EU institutions and their texts concerning translation, language and terminology. The study commences with a legal-linguistic analysis of EU texts for references to “staff”, “staff representation” and “employment” in order to identify specific texts and bodies of relevance to the study. This approach leads to two broad categories: staff committees and trade unions. Information is sought from EU institutions about these bodies and their translation and language arrangements, and a list is made of websites available to the general public. These sites are then examined as part of the legal-linguistic profiling approach.

This paper applies a structured legal-linguistic profiling approach to EU “staff representation bodies” as a way to access domains that lie behind the public face of EU institutions and their texts concerning translation, language and terminology. The study commences with a legal-linguistic analysis of EU texts for references to “staff”, “staff representation” and “employment” in order to identify specific texts and bodies of relevance to the study. This approach leads to two broad categories: staff committees and trade unions. Information is sought from EU institutions about these bodies and their translation and language arrangements, and a list is made of websites available to the general public. These sites are then examined as part of the legal-linguistic profiling approach.

The aim of this paper is to establish the repertoire and distribution of verbal and adverbial exponents of epistemic modality in English- and Polish-language judgments passed by the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) and non-translated judgments passed by the Supreme Court of Poland (SN). The study applies a model for categorizing exponents of epistemicity with regard to their (i) level (high-, medium- and low-level of certainty, necessity or possibility expressed by the markers; primary dimension), (ii) perspective (own vs. reported perspective), (iii) opinion (based either on facts or beliefs) and (iv) time (the embedding of epistemic markers in sentences relating to the past, present or future) (contextual dimensions). It examines the degree of intra-generic convergence of translated EU judgments and non-translated national judgments in terms of the employment of epistemic markers, as well as the degree of authoritativeness of judicial argumentation, and determines whether the frequent use of epistemic markers constitutes a generic feature of judgments. The research material consists of a parallel corpus of English- and Polish-language versions of 200 EU judgments and a corpus of 200 non-translated domestic judgments. The results point to the high salience and differing patterns of use of epistemic markers in both EU and national judgments. The frequent use of high-level epistemic markers boosts the authoritativeness of judicial reasoning.

This paper applies a structured legal-linguistic profiling approach to EU “staff representation bodies” as a way to access domains that lie behind the public face of EU institutions and their texts concerning translation, language and terminology. The study commences with a legal-linguistic analysis of EU texts for references to “staff”, “staff representation” and “employment” in order to identify specific texts and bodies of relevance to the study. This approach leads to two broad categories: staff committees and trade unions. Information is sought from EU institutions about these bodies and their translation and language arrangements, and a list is made of websites available to the general public. These sites are then examined as part of the legal-linguistic profiling approach.

The aim of this paper is to establish the repertoire and distribution of verbal and adverbial exponents of epistemic modality in English- and Polish-language judgments passed by the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) and non-translated judgments passed by the Supreme Court of Poland (SN). The study applies a model for categorizing exponents of epistemicity with regard to their (i) level (high-, medium- and low-level of certainty, necessity or possibility expressed by the markers; primary dimension), (ii) perspective (own vs. reported perspective), (iii) opinion (based either on facts or beliefs) and (iv) time (the embedding of epistemic markers in sentences relating to the past, present or future) (contextual dimensions). It examines the degree of intra-generic convergence of translated EU judgments and non-translated national judgments in terms of the employment of epistemic markers, as well as the degree of authoritativeness of judicial argumentation, and determines whether the frequent use of epistemic markers constitutes a generic feature of judgments. The research material consists of a parallel corpus of English- and Polish-language versions of 200 EU judgments and a corpus of 200 non-translated domestic judgments. The results point to the high salience and differing patterns of use of epistemic markers in both EU and national judgments. The frequent use of high-level epistemic markers boosts the authoritativeness of judicial reasoning.

The paper reports on a survey into the linguistic needs of law professionals in four European countries, with the aim of identifying their views on the importance and their use of foreign language skills as well as their preferences for ELP course content. The data, obtained from a questionnaire survey of 536 legal professionals from Poland, the Czech Republic, Croatia and Germany, show that while the respondents agree on many of the major points, there are also some differences conditioned by the respondents’ age and the specific tasks they perform in the legal profession. The article argues that these variables have to be taken into consideration in the LSP context because they determine some of the specific needs that need to be addressed in Legal English instruction. It is suggested that the findings about the lawyers’ self-perceived importance and preferred styles of learning are highly relevant for LSP practitioners, particularly when designing Legal English programmes and testing materials.

The paper reports on a survey into the linguistic needs of law professionals in four European countries, with the aim of identifying their views on the importance and their use of foreign language skills as well as their preferences for ELP course content. The data, obtained from a questionnaire survey of 536 legal professionals from Poland, the Czech Republic, Croatia and Germany, show that while the respondents agree on many of the major points, there are also some differences conditioned by the respondents’ age and the specific tasks they perform in the legal profession. The article argues that these variables have to be taken into consideration in the LSP context because they determine some of the specific needs that need to be addressed in Legal English instruction. It is suggested that the findings about the lawyers’ self-perceived importance and preferred styles of learning are highly relevant for LSP practitioners, particularly when designing Legal English programmes and testing materials.

Individual Multilinguality as a Research Problem in Linguistics. The Case of Bronisław Malinowski The goal of the paper is to outline the methodological approach to a study of a multilingual person, and their linguistic output recorded in multilingual texts. It employs the set of conceptual and research instruments developed for the investigation of individual bilingualism and recorded bilingual speech, and uses them to explore the linguistic strategies of Bronisław Malinowski, an outstanding anthropologist and a multilingual person who consciously exploited the codes he knew in the process of creating multilingual texts – heterogeneous by their very nature, and yet cohesive. A multilingual text is a text in which several languages coexist, but always only two codes meet in a given point on the line of the text. Traces of the meeting of languages are visible in the form of transcodic markers. Their formal and functional analysis serves to examine the rules on which several languages have been introduced into a text, which can be an inspiration to outline the grammar of individual multilinguality.

Connectivity of the Adjective były ‘Former’ with Nouns The paper discusses the grammatical and semantic characteristics of the adjective były ‘former’, with a particular regard to its connectivity with nouns. The adjective były is an element of a nominal group, it connotes a noun on the right side, and cannot be used in the function of a predicate. It connects with certain groups of common nouns which denote people and artifacts, as well as with geographical names; it does not connect with names of animals or plants.

Kazimierz Nitsch and Ethnology The paper discusses a little known aspect of Kazimierz Nitsch’s work – his contribution to the development of Polish ethnology. It is shown that his influence had a dual character: organizational (work in the structures of the Polish Ethnological Society; creation of the Slavic Institute at the Jagiellonian University, which housed the Chair of Slavic Ethnography; foundation of the Lud Słowiański journal (‘The Slavic Folk’); support for ethnologist, e.g. Kazimierz Moszyński and Bronisław Piłsudski), as well as scientific (stimulation of ethnogeography; providing data for ethnologists in linguistic works).

Kazimierz Nitsch’s Dialectal Dictionary The paper presents the profile of Kazimierz Nitsch on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of his death. Particular attention was given to Nitsch’s achievements in connection with modern dialectal lexicography.

Lemko Etymologies. Part III The present paper is the third part in the Lemko etymologies series; analysed in it are words beginning with letters Ж–З: жбыр, жґыртати, жґрынджати, жджар, жджок, жоґати, жомба, жуграти, забіль, зайда, заниско (занізка), збаршніти (зборшніти), збрескнути, згацькати, згырити ся, згужвати (зужвати), згусувати ся, зґырцати, здабати, зипы, зрешіти, зуноватися, зьдіватися. Authors attempt to establish the origin of those words, taking into account data from etymological, historical, and dialectal dictionaries of Slavic languages and dialects, as well as from the neighbouring non-Slavic languages, thereby outlining a broad comparative background. They propose additions and corrections to previous etymological findings regarding some of the discussed words.

The Pansy Puzzle. Name as a Tool of Linguistic Ordering of the World The paper analyses Polish names for ‘wild pansy’. Two fitonymic models have been reconstructed: a botanical, and a cultural one. The former is represented by the Linnean name Viola tricolor; the latter also refers to the botanical characteristics of the plant, but can be reinterpreted in accordance with the knowledge of the world which is fixed, and conventionalized, in the given community. This is an internally diversified model, dynamic, open to the influence of other cultures, and determined by the context. Among others, it is realized by names connected to family relationships, such as macoszki ‘stepmothers’ which refers to Germanic beliefs, or brat ‘brother’ and siostra ‘sister’ related to Eastern and Western Slavic culture.

The Language and Culture of Polish Highlanders The paper discusses the methodological and practical lexicographic solutions implemented in J. Kąś’s Ilustrowany leksykon gwary i kultury podhalańskiej (‘An illustrated lexicon of Podhalan dialect and culture’). In view of its theoretical and material values, this twelve-volume work occupies a significant place in Slavic dialectal lexicography. It is a so-called full dialectal dictionary, but at the same time an encyclopaedia of Podhalan folklore. Linguistic explanations entwine with description of the folk culture. The various ways in which ethnographic information is presented constitute an indisputable innovation, and it must be added that one of those ways are numerous photographs. A reliable, and also clearly designed dictionary has without doubt a great scientific and cultural significance. It can be used not only by dialectologists and ethnographers, but by anyone with interest in folk culture.

Pets in Three Models of Folk Description of the World The goal of the paper is to show how three models of the world co-exist in folk narrations about pets. Identified in accordance with the methodology of the Lublin Słownik stereotypów i symboli ludowych (‘A dictionary of folk stereotypes and symbols’), the three models are: the mythological (inherited from the Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Slavic past), the religious (biblical, Judaeo-Christian), and the colloquial (common-sense, pragmatic). The author also speculates whether it is possible to connect the individual models with specific genres of folklore. The basis for the analyses is the rich material covering contexts from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 21st century, which comprises three types of data: lexicographic, folkloristic, and ethnographic.

Polish Language in the Shade of March ’68: the Case Study of Polish Jews – French Immigrants The paper discusses the Polish language of Jews who emigrated from Poland to France between 1967 and 1980. An analysis of excerpts from interviews which contain discourse about the attitudes of the interviewees towards their mother tongue and its transmission, will allow us to answer the following questions: What place does the Polish language occupy in everyday life of the informers? What are their feelings towards their mother tongue? And lastly, how many of them have decided to pass the Polish language to their children, and so preserve it in their families?