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Abstract Mammalian societies represent many different types of social systems. While some aspects of social systems have been extensively studied, there is little consensus on how to conceptualize social organization across species. Here, we present a framework describing eight dimensions of social organization to capture its diversity across mammalian societies. The framework uses simple information that is clearly separated from the three other aspects of social systems: social structure, care system, and mating system. By applying our framework across 208 species of all mammalian taxa, we find a rich multidimensional landscape of social organization. Correlation analysis reveals that the dimensions have relatively high independence, suggesting that social systems are able to evolve different aspects of social behavior without being tied to particular traits. Applying a clustering algorithm allows us to identify the relative importance of key dimensions on patterns of social organization. Finally, mapping mating system onto these clusters shows that social organization represents a distinct aspect of social systems. In the future, this framework will aid reporting on important aspects of natural history in species and facilitate comparative analyses, which ultimately will provide the ability to generate new insights into the primary drivers of social patterns and evolution of sociality.

Mammalian societies represent many different types of social systems. While some aspects of social systems have been extensively studied, there is little consensus on how to conceptualize social organization across species. Here, we present a framework describing eight dimensions of social organization to capture its diversity across mammalian societies. The framework uses simple information that is clearly separated from the three other aspects of social systems: social structure, care system, and mating system. By applying our framework across 208 species of all mammalian taxa, we find a rich multidimensional landscape of social organization. Correlation analysis reveals that the dimensions have relatively high independence, suggesting that social systems are able to evolve different aspects of social behavior without being tied to particular traits. Applying a clustering algorithm allows us to identify the relative importance of key dimensions on patterns of social organization. Finally, mapping mating system onto these clusters shows that social organization represents a distinct aspect of social systems. In the future, this framework will aid reporting on important aspects of natural history in species and facilitate comparative analyses, which ultimately will provide the ability to generate new insights into the primary drivers of social patterns and evolution of sociality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The aim of this study was to reveal what enables, safeguards and sustains midwives to provide labour care in freestanding midwifery-led units. Design A hermeneutic phenomenological study was undertaken in the Auckland region of New Zealand. In-depth interviews were conducted with 14 participants: 11 midwives who provide care in freestanding midwifery-led units and three obstetricians who provide antenatal consultations on site in midwifery-led units. Main findings Confidence is necessary to provide intrapartum care in freestanding midwifery units. This confidence is cultivated by working in the community or freestanding unit and believing this unit is an appropriate space for healthy women to labour and birth. Normal labour and birth are commonplace in this space which in turn reinforces midwives’ confidence. Maintaining confidence for midwives to work in these units requires trusting relationships in the midwifery team. Further, there needs to be mutually respectful relationships with obstetric colleagues. Midwives who have lesser experience, or experience in obstetric unit only, may need support to step into the role of providing labour care in freestanding midwifery units. When the midwife feels supported, when s/he witnesses women and families experiencing their normal birth, one's resolve to practising in this manner is strengthened. The midwife holds confidence. Key conclusions and implications for practice Confidence required to provide labour care in a midwifery-led unit is cultivated through immersion in these units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Free-standing midwifery led units (FMLUs) (known in New Zealand as a primary maternity unit), provide midwifery led care for low-risk women in local, family friendly environments which are generally some distance from an obstetric unit (OU) (known in New Zealand as a secondary or tertiary facility). The majority of women in New Zealand/ Aotearoa choose to give birth in an OU and reasons for this choice may be related to safety concerns. Aim: To identify, compare and critically evaluate published studies on FMLUs to determine the evidence that contributes to safety and may be useful for the New Zealand/Aotearoa maternity context. Method: Five databases were searched using the search terms: place of birth, midwife-led, primary unit, maternal outcomes, neonatal outcomes. The primary outcome of interest was place of birth and the impact on mortality or morbidity rates for maternal and neonatal health. Secondary outcome measures were intervention rates during labour Findings: Three studies were found which compared maternal and neonatal outcomes for low risk women planning to birth in free standing midwifery led units or obstetric units. These studies found less augmentation during labour and higher rates of normal birth in FMLUs. Low-risk women who planned to birth in an OU had higher rates of epidural anaesthesia, instrumental birth, cesarean section and episiotomy rates. Neonatal health appeared to benefit with no differences in mortality rates but higher Apgar scores at 5 minutes and lower rates of admission to a neonatal intensive care unit for babies when birth was planned at a FMLU. Conclusion: There is strong and consistent evidence to support FMLU birth as a safe option for women experiencing a low-risk pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]