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The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays an important role in social behavior and is sensitive to stressful circumstances. Challenging life conditions might change PFC function and put individuals at risk for maladaptive social behavior. The excitation-inhibition (EI) balance of prefrontal neurons appears to play a crucial role in this process. Here, we examined how a challenging life condition in C57BL/6JolaHsd mice, i.e. group-housing 6 mice in a complex environment for 10 days in adulthood, changes the EI-balance of infralimbic prefrontal neurons in layer 2/3, compared to standard pair-housing. Slices were prepared from "undisturbed" mice, i.e. the first mouse taken from the cage, or mice taken ∼15 min later, who were mildly aroused after removal of the first mouse. We observed a housing-condition by arousal-state interaction, with in the complex housing group an elevated EI-balance in undisturbed and reduced EI-balance in mildly aroused animals, while no differences were observed in standard housed animals. The change was explained by a shift in mIPSC and mEPSC frequency, while amplitudes remained unaffected. Female mice showed no housing-by-state interaction, but a main effect of housing was found for mIPSCs, with a higher frequency in complex- versus standard-housed females. No effects were observed in males who were complex-housed from a young age onwards. Explorative investigations support a potential mediating role of corticosterone in housing effects on the EI-balance of males. We argue that taking the arousal state of individuals into account is necessary to better understand the consequences of exposure to challenging life conditions for prefrontal function. • Individual differences to thrive might be highly dependent on past social experiences. • PFC electrophysiology was changed in male mice after complex housing in adulthood. • This change was affected by acute arousal state and not observed in females. • Corticosterone might mediate the housing effects on PFC excitation and inhibition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inhibitory synaptic transmission requires the targeting and stabilization of GABAA receptors (GABAARs) at synapses. The mechanisms responsible remain poorly understood, and roles for transmembrane accessory proteins have not been established. Using molecular, imaging, and electrophysiological approaches, we identify the tetraspanin LHFPL4 as a critical regulator of postsynaptic GABAAR clustering in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. LHFPL4 interacts tightly with GABAAR subunits and is selectively enriched at inhibitory synapses. In LHFPL4 knockout mice, there is a dramatic cell-type-specific reduction in GABAAR and gephyrin clusters and an accumulation of large intracellular gephyrin aggregates in vivo. While GABAARs are still trafficked to the neuronal surface in pyramidal neurons, they are no longer localized at synapses, resulting in a profound loss of fast inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Hippocampal interneuron currents remain unaffected. Our results establish LHFPL4 as a synapse-specific tetraspanin essential for inhibitory synapse function and provide fresh insights into the molecular make-up of inhibitory synapses.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an immensely challenging developmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction, restricted/repetitive behavior, and anxiety. GABAergic dysfunction has been postulated to underlie these autistic symptoms. Gastrodin is widely used clinically in the treatment of neurological disorders and showed to modulate GABAergic signaling in the animal brain. The present study aimed to determine whether treatment with gastrodin can rescue valproic acid (VPA) induced autistic-like phenotypes, and to determine its possible mechanism of action. Our results showed that administration of gastrodin effectively alleviated the autistic-associated behavioral abnormalities as reflected by an increase in social interaction and decrement in repetitive/stereotyped behavior and anxiety in mice as compared to those in untreated animals. Remarkably, the amelioration in autistic-like phenotypes was accompanied by the restoration of inhibitory synaptic transmission, α5 GABAA receptor, and type 1 GABA transporter (GAT1) expression in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) of VPA-treated mice. These findings indicate that gastrodin may alleviate the autistic symptoms caused by VPA through regulating GABAergic synaptic transmission, suggesting that gastrodin may be a potential therapeutic target in autism.

Early-onset drinking during childhood or preadolescence is a serious social problem. Yet, most of the basic neurobiological research on the acute effects of ethanol has been carried out on adult or early postnatal animals. We studied the effect of alcohol exposure on the basic electrophysiological properties and cell viability of layer 5 pyramidal neurons from the somatosensory cortex of juvenile (P21-P23) C57BL/6N mice. After bath application of 50 mM ethanol to acute slices of the somatosensory cortex, no adverse effects were detected on cells survival, whereas the input resistance and firing rate of layer 5 neurons were significantly reduced. While the effect on the input resistance was reversible, the depressing effect on cell firing remained stable after 6 min of alcohol exposure. Ethanol application did not result in any significant change of mIPSC frequency, amplitude, and rise time. A slight increase of mIPSC decay time was observed after 6 min of ethanol exposure. The molecular mechanisms leading to these alterations and their significance for the physiology of the cerebral cortex are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NMDA-type ionotropic glutamate receptors (NMDARs) play an important role in the regulation of synapse development and function in the brain. Recently we have shown that NMDARs are critical for GABAergic synapse development in developing hippocampal neurons. However, it remains unclear whether NMDARs are important for establishment of GABAergic synaptic transmission in other types of neurons in the brain. Here we report that in both cortical pyramidal neurons and midbrain dopamine neurons in ventral tegmental area (VTA), genetic deletion of the GluN1 subunit, which is required for assembly of functional NMDARs, leads to a strong reduction of GABAergic synaptic transmission. These data demonstrate that NMDARs play an important role in the development of GABAergic synaptic transmission in two types of neurons with distinct developmental origins, and suggest that NMDARs are commonly involved in development of GABAergic synaptic transmission in different types of neurons in the brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptic inhibition in the CNS is mostly mediated by GABA or glycine. Generally, the use of the two transmitters is spatially segregated, but there are central synapses employing both, which allows for spatial and temporal variability of inhibitory mechanisms. Spherical bushy cells (SBCs) in the mammalian cochlear nucleus receive primary excitatory inputs through auditory nerve fibers arising from the organ of Corti and non-primary inhibition mediated by a dual glycine-GABA transmission. Slow kinetics IPSCs enable activity dependent tonic-like conductance build up, functioning as a gain control by filtering out small or temporally imprecise EPSPs. However, it remained elusive whether GABA and glycine are released as content of the same vesicle or from distinct presynaptic terminals. The developmental profile of quantal release was investigated with whole cell recordings of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) from P1–P25 SBCs of Mongolian gerbils. GABA is the initial transmitter eliciting slow-rising and -decaying events of relatively small amplitudes, occurring only during early postnatal life. Around and after hearing onset, the inhibitory quanta are predominantly containing glycine that—with maturity—triggers progressively larger and longer mIPSC. In addition, GABA corelease with glycine evokes mIPSCs of particularly large amplitudes consistently occurring across all ages, but with low probability. Together, these results suggest that GABA, as the primary transmitter released from immature inhibitory terminals, initially plays a developmental role. In maturity, GABA is contained in synaptic vesicles only in addition to glycine to increase the inhibitory potency, thereby fulfilling solely a modulatory function.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-synthesizing parvocellular neuroendocrine cells (PNCs) of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) play a key role in the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Several studies have demonstrated that synaptic inputs to these cells may undergo stress-related enhancement but, on the other hand, it has been reported that exposition to the same stressor for prolonged time periods may induce a progressive reduction in the response of the HPA axis to homotypic stressors. In the present study rats were subjected to 10 min restraint sessions, repeated twice daily for 3 or 7 days. Miniature excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs and mIPSCs) were then recorded from PNCs in ex vivo hypothalamic slice preparations obtained 24 h after the last restraint. Restraint stress repeated over 3 days resulted in increased mean frequency and decreased rise time and decay time constant of mEPSCs, accompanied by a decrease in the excitability of PNCs, however, no such changes were evident in slices obtained from rats subjected to restraint over 7 days. There were no changes in mIPSCs after repeated restraint. Administration of the unspecific nitric oxide synthase (NOS) blocker Nω-Nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA) before each restraint, repeated over 3 days, prevented the occurrence of an increase in mEPSC frequency. However, animals receiving L-NNA and subjected to repeated restraint had similar changes in PNCs membrane excitability and mEPSC kinetics as stressed rats not receiving L-NNA. Comparison of the effects of a single 10 min restraint session followed by either an immediate or delayed (24 h) decapitation revealed an increase in the mean mEPSC frequency and a decrease in the mean mIPSC frequency in slices prepared immediately after restraint, with no apparent effects when slice preparation was delayed by 24 h. These results demonstrate that restraint, lasting 10 min and repeated twice daily for 3 days, induces a selective and long-lasting enhancement of excitatory synaptic input onto PNCs, partially by a NOS-dependent mechanism, and reduces PNC excitability, whereas prolongation of repeated stress for up to 7 days results in an adaptation.

Summary Inhibitory synaptic transmission requires the targeting and stabilization of GABA A receptors (GABA A Rs) at synapses. The mechanisms responsible remain poorly understood, and roles for transmembrane accessory proteins have not been established. Using molecular, imaging, and electrophysiological approaches, we identify the tetraspanin LHFPL4 as a critical regulator of postsynaptic GABA A R clustering in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. LHFPL4 interacts tightly with GABA A R subunits and is selectively enriched at inhibitory synapses. In LHFPL4 knockout mice, there is a dramatic cell-type-specific reduction in GABA A R and gephyrin clusters and an accumulation of large intracellular gephyrin aggregates in vivo. While GABA A Rs are still trafficked to the neuronal surface in pyramidal neurons, they are no longer localized at synapses, resulting in a profound loss of fast inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Hippocampal interneuron currents remain unaffected. Our results establish LHFPL4 as a synapse-specific tetraspanin essential for inhibitory synapse function and provide fresh insights into the molecular make-up of inhibitory synapses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptic inhibition in the CNS is mostly mediated by GABA or glycine. Generally, the use of the two transmitters is spatially segregated, but there are central synapses employing both, which allows for spatial and temporal variability of inhibitory mechanisms. Spherical bushy cells (SBCs) in the mammalian cochlear nucleus receive primary excitatory inputs through auditory nerve fibers arising from the organ of Corti and non-primary inhibition mediated by a dual glycine-GABA transmission. Slow kinetics IPSCs enable activity dependent tonic-like conductance build up, functioning as a gain control by filtering out small or temporally imprecise EPSPs. However, it remained elusive whether GABA and glycine are released as content of the same vesicle or from distinct presynaptic terminals. The developmental profile of quantal release was investigated with whole cell recordings of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) from P1-P25 SBCs of Mongolian gerbils. GABA is the initial transmitter eliciting slow-rising and -decaying events of relatively small amplitudes, occurring only during early postnatal life. Around and after hearing onset, the inhibitory quanta are predominantly containing glycine that--with maturity--triggers progressively larger and longer mIPSC. In addition, GABA corelease with glycine evokes mIPSCs of particularly large amplitudes consistently occurring across all ages, but with low probability. Together, these results suggest that GABA, as the primary transmitter released from immature inhibitory terminals, initially plays a developmental role. In maturity, GABA is contained in synaptic vesicles only in addition to glycine to increase the inhibitory potency, thereby fulfilling solely a modulatory function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-synthesizing parvocellular neuroendocrine cells (PNCs) of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) play a key role in the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Several studies have demonstrated that synaptic inputs to these cells may undergo stress-related enhancement but, on the other hand, it has been reported that exposition to the same stressor for prolonged time periods may induce a progressive reduction in the response of the HPA axis to homotypic stressors. In the present study rats were subjected to 10 min restraint sessions, repeated twice daily for 3 or 7 days. Miniature excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs and mIPSCs) were then recorded from PNCs in ex vivo hypothalamic slice preparations obtained 24 h after the last restraint. Restraint stress repeated over 3 days resulted in increased mean frequency and decreased rise time and decay time constant of mEPSCs, accompanied by a decrease in the excitability of PNCs, however, no such changes were evident in slices obtained from rats subjected to restraint over 7 days. There were no changes in mIPSCs after repeated restraint. Administration of the unspecific nitric oxide synthase (NOS) blocker Nω-Nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA) before each restraint, repeated over 3 days, prevented the occurrence of an increase in mEPSC frequency. However, animals receiving L-NNA and subjected to repeated restraint had similar changes in PNCs membrane excitability and mEPSC kinetics as stressed rats not receiving L-NNA. Comparison of the effects of a single 10 min restraint session followed by either an immediate or delayed (24 h) decapitation revealed an increase in the mean mEPSC frequency and a decrease in the mean mIPSC frequency in slices prepared immediately after restraint, with no apparent effects when slice preparation was delayed by 24 h. These results demonstrate that restraint, lasting 10 min and repeated twice daily for 3 days, induces a selective and long-lasting enhancement of excitatory synaptic input onto PNCs, partially by a NOS-dependent mechanism, and reduces PNC excitability, whereas prolongation of repeated stress for up to 7 days results in an adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Multiple neuropsychiatric disorders, e.g., depression, are linked to imbalances in excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission and prefrontal cortical dysfunction, and are concomitant with chronic stress. Methods We used electrophysiologic ( n = 5–6 animals, 21–25 cells/group), neuroanatomic ( n = 6–8/group), and behavioral ( n = 12/group) techniques to test the hypothesis that chronic stress increases inhibition of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) glutamatergic output neurons. Results Using patch clamp recordings from infralimbic mPFC pyramidal neurons, we found that chronic stress selectively increases the frequency of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents with no effect on amplitude, which suggests that chronic stress increases presynaptic gamma-aminobutyric acid release. Elevated gamma-aminobutyric acid release under chronic stress is accompanied by increased inhibitory appositions and terminals onto glutamatergic cells, as assessed by both immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy. Furthermore, chronic stress decreases glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity specifically in a subset of inhibitory neurons, which suggests that increased inhibitory tone in the mPFC after chronic stress may be caused by loss of a glucocorticoid receptor–mediated brake on interneuron activity. These neuroanatomic and functional changes are associated with impairment of a prefrontal-mediated behavior. During chronic stress, rats initially make significantly more errors in the delayed spatial win-shift task, an mPFC-mediated behavior, which suggests a diminished impact of the mPFC on decision making. Conclusions Taken together, the data suggest that chronic stress increases synaptic inhibition onto prefrontal glutamatergic output neurons, limiting the influence of the prefrontal cortex in control of stress reactivity and behavior. Thus, these data provide a mechanistic link among chronic stress, prefrontal cortical hypofunction, and behavioral dysfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stem cells are regulated by their surrounding microenvironments, called niche, such as cell-cell interaction and extracellular matrix. Classically, feeder cells as a niche have been used in the culture of iPS cells from both the mouse and the human. However, the regulation mechanism of stem cells by feeder cells as a niche still have been partially unclear. In this study, we used three murine iPS cell lines, iPS- MEF-Ng-20D-17, iPS- MEF-Ng-178B-5 and iPS- MEF-Fb/Ng-440A-3, which were generated by different reprogramming methods. In general, these cell lines commonly need the feeder cells as a niche to culture. Recently, the effect of substrate stiffness is known in stem cell study. First, we focused on the mechanical properties of feeder cells, and then we speculated that feeder-less culture might be made possible by using molecules in place of the mechanical properties of the niche. Finally, we found that the combination of disintegrin (echistatin) and 2i ( GSK3 inhibitor and MEK inhibitor) is a sufficient condition for three murine iPS culture. This novel method of mimicking the murine iPS cell niche may be useful to understand signaling pathways to maintain the pluripotency of stem cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mounting evidence indicates that ethanol (EtOH) exposure activates neuroimmune signaling. Alterations in pro-inflammatory cytokines after acute and chronic EtOH exposure have been heavily investigated. In contrast, little is known about the regulation of neurotransmission and/or modulation by anti-inflammatory cytokines in the brain after an acute EtOH exposure. Recent evidence suggests that interleukin-10 (IL-10), an anti-inflammatory cytokine, is upregulated during withdrawal from chronic EtOH exposure. In the present study, we show that IL-10 is increased early (1 h) after a single intoxicating dose of EtOH (5 g/kg, intragastric) in Sprague Dawley rats. We also show that IL-10 rapidly regulates GABAergic transmission in dentate gyrus neurons. In brain slice recordings, IL-10 application dose-dependently decreases miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) area and frequency, and decreases the magnitude of the picrotoxin sensitive tonic current (I tonic ), indicating both pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms. A PI3K inhibitor LY294002 (but not the negative control LY303511) ablated the inhibitory effects of IL-10 on mIPSC area and I tonic , but not on mIPSC frequency, indicating the involvement of PI3K in postsynaptic effects of IL-10 on GABAergic transmission. Lastly, we also identify a novel neurobehavioral regulation of EtOH sensitivity by IL-10, whereby IL-10 attenuates acute EtOH-induced hypnosis. These results suggest that EtOH causes an early release of IL-10 in the brain, which may contribute to neuronal hyperexcitability as well as disturbed sleep seen after binge exposure to EtOH. These results also identify IL-10 signaling as a potential therapeutic target in alcohol-use disorders and other CNS disorders where GABAergic transmission is altered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulation of GABA release in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV) potently influences vagal output to the viscera. The presence of functional ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) on GABAergic terminals that rapidly alter GABA release onto DMV motor neurons has been suggested previously, but the receptor subtypes contributing to the response are unknown. We examined the effect of selective activation and inhibition of iGluRs on tetrodotoxin-insensitive, miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in DMV neurons using patch-clamp recordings in brainstem slices from mice. Capsaicin, which activates transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptors and increases mIPSC frequency in the DMV via an iGluR-mediated, heterosynaptic mechanism, was also applied to assess GABA release subsequent to capsaicin-stimulated glutamate release. Application of glutamate, N-methyl- d -aspartate (NMDA), or kainic acid (KA), but not AMPA, resulted in increased mIPSC frequency in most neurons. Inhibition of AMPA/KA receptors reduced mIPSC frequency, but selective antagonism of AMPA receptors did not alter GABA release, implicating the presence of presynaptic KA receptors on GABAergic terminals. Whereas NMDA application increased mIPSC frequency, blocking NMDA receptors was without effect, indicating that presynaptic NMDA receptors were present, but not activated by ambient glutamate levels in the slice. The effect of NMDA was prevented by AMPA/KA receptor blockade, suggesting indirect involvement of NMDA receptors. The stimulatory effect of capsaicin on GABA release was prevented when AMPA/KA or NMDA, but not AMPA receptors were blocked. Results of these studies indicate that presynaptic NMDAR and KA receptors regulate GABA release in the DMV, representing a heterosynaptic arrangement for rapidly modulating parasympathetic output, especially when synaptic excitation is elevated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The developmental increase in the strength of inhibitory synaptic circuits defines the time window of the critical period for plasticity in sensory cortices. Conceptually, plasticity of inhibitory synapses is an attractive mechanism to allow for homeostatic adaptation to the sensory environment. However, a brief duration of visual deprivation that causes maximal change in excitatory synapses produces minimal change in inhibitory synaptic transmission. Here we examined developmental and experience-dependent changes in inhibition by measuring miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons of mouse visual cortex. During development from postnatal day 21 (P21) to P35, GABAA receptor function changed from fewer higher-conductance channels to more numerous lower-conductance channels without altering the average mIPSC amplitude. Although a week of visual deprivation did not alter the average mIPSC amplitude, a subsequent 2 h exposure to light produced a rapid rebound potentiation. This form of plasticity is restricted to a critical period before the developmental change in GABAergic synaptic properties is completed, and hence is absent by P35. Visual experiencedependent rebound potentiation of mIPSCs is accompanied by an increase in the open channel number and requires activity-dependent transcription of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Mice lacking BDNF transcription through promoter IV did not show developmental changes in inhibition and lacked rebound potentiation. Our results suggest that sensory experience may have distinct functional consequences in normal versus deprived sensory cortices, and that experience-dependent BDNF expression controls the plasticity of inhibitory synaptic transmission particularly when recovering vision during the critical period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aims: The FDA approved smoking cessation aid varenicline can effectively attenuate nicotine-stimulated dopamine release. Varenicline may also exert important actions on other transmitter systems that also influence nicotine reinforcement or contribute to the drug''s cognitive and affective side effects. In this study, we determined if varenicline, like nicotine, can stimulate presynaptic GABA release. Main methods: Using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques, we measured GABAAR-mediated asynchronous, spontaneous miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in acute brain slices from two brain regions important for learning and memory, the hippocampus and basal forebrain. Key findings: Both varenicline (10μM) and nicotine (10μM) applications alone resulted in small but significant increases in amplitude, as well as robustly enhanced frequency of mIPSCs in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons and medial septum/diagonal band (MS/DB) neurons. A unique subpopulation of MS/DB neurons showed decreases in frequency. In the presence of nicotine, varenicline effectively attenuated the expected enhancement of hippocampal mIPSC frequency like a competitive antagonist. However, in the MS/DB, varenicline only partially attenuated nicotine''s effects. Reversing the order of drug application by adding nicotine to varenicline-exposed slices had little effect. Significance: Varenicline, like nicotine, stimulates presynaptic GABA release, and also exerts a partial agonist action by attenuating nicotine-stimulated release in both the hippocampus and basal forebrain. These effects could potentially affect cognitive functions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The volatile anesthetics enhance GABAergic inhibitory transmission at synaptic and extrasynaptic sites at central neurons. In the present study, we investigated the effects of three volatile anesthetics (isoflurane, enflurane and sevoflurane) on synaptic and extrasynaptic GABAA receptor responses using mechanically dissociated rat hippocampal CA1 neurons in which functional native nerve endings (boutons) were retained. The extrasynaptic GABAA receptors were activated by exogenous GABA application while synaptic ones were assessed by miniature and evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs and eIPSCs, respectively). All volatile anesthetics concentration-dependently enhanced the exogenous GABA-induced postsynaptic responses. The structural isomers, isoflurane and enflurane, increased mIPSC frequency while sevoflurane had no effect. None of these anesthetics altered mIPSC amplitudes at their clinically relevant concentrations. Sevoflurane prolonged event kinetics by increasing decay time of mIPSCs and eIPSCs at clinically relevant concentration. On the other hand, both isoflurane and enflurane only prolonged the kinetics of these events at 1 mM of high concentration. For GABAergic eIPSCs, both isoflurane and enflurane decreased the evoked response amplitude and increased the failure rate (Rf), while sevoflurane decreased the amplitude without affecting Rf. These results suggest that isoflurane and enflurane at the clinically relevant concentrations predominantly act on GABAergic presynaptic nerve endings to decrease action potential dependent GABA release. It was concluded that these anesthetics have heterogeneous effects on mIPSCs and eIPSCs with different modulation of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABAA receptors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has been demonstrated to play an important role in the affective dimension of pain. Although much evidence has pointed to an increased excitatory synaptic transmission in the ACC in some of the pathological pain state, the inhibitory synaptic transmission in this process has not been well studied. Also, the overall changes of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission have not been comparatively studied in an animal model displaying both long-term persistent nociception and hyperalgesia. Here we used patch clamp recordings in ACC brain slices to observe the changes in synaptic transmission in a pain model induced by peripheral bee venom injection. First, we show that, comparing with those of naive and saline controlled rats, there was a significant increase in spike frequency in ACC neurons harvested from rats after 2 h period of peripheral persistent painful stimuli. Second, it is further shown that the frequency, amplitude and half-width were all increased in spontaneous excitatory post-synaptic currents (sEPSCs), while the amplitude of spontaneous inhibitory post-synaptic currents (sIPSCs) was decreased. The recordings of miniature post-synaptic currents demonstrate an increase in frequency of miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents (mEPSCs) and a decrease in both frequency and amplitude of miniature inhibitory post-synaptic currents (mIPSCs) in rats'' ACC slice of bee venom treatment. Taken together, the present results demonstrate an unparalleled change between excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in the ACC under a state of peripheral persistent nociception that might be underlying mechanisms of the excessive excitability of the ACC neurons. We propose that the painful stimuli when lasts or becomes persistent may cause a disruption of the balance between excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission that can contribute to the functional change in the ACC. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: Modulation of the serotonergic (5-HT) neurotransmitter system arising from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) is thought to support the behavioral effects of swim stress, i.e., immobility. In vivo pharmacological and anatomical studies suggest that corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synaptic transmission closely interact to set the response of the DR to swim stress. To investigate the cellular basis of these physiological mechanisms the effects of ovine CRF (oCRF) on GABAA-dependent miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in 5-HT and non-5-HT DR neurons in acute mesencephalic slices obtained from rats either naïve or 24h after a 15min swim stress session were tested. In this study, the effect of swim stress alone was to decrease the holding current, i.e., hyperpolarize the neuron, and to increase the amplitude and charge of mIPSCs recorded from non-5-HT neurons. Ovine CRF (10nM) induced an increase in mIPSC frequency in 5-HT neurons recorded from naïve rats, an effect that was suppressed by swim stress. The inward current elicited by oCRF in both 5-HT and non-5-HT neurons was also blocked by swim stress. Ovine CRF increased mIPSCs amplitude and charge in both 5-HT and non-5-HT neurons, but this effect was not modified by swim stress. In concert with our previous findings that swim stress decreased input resistance, action potential threshold and action potential duration and increased glutamatergic synaptic activity the overall primary effect of swim stress is to increase the excitability of 5-HT neurons. These data provide a mechanism at the cellular level for the immobility induced by swim stress and identifies critical components of the raphe circuitry responsible for the altered output of 5-HT neurons induced by swim stress. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is a major component of the descending pain inhibitory pathway, which is related to central analgesia. In the present study, we have investigated the possible roles of presynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in GABAergic transmission onto PAG neurons. In acutely isolated rat PAG neurons, GABAergic miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) were recorded by use of a whole-cell patch clamp technique. Acetylcholine (30μM) transiently increased both the frequency and amplitude of GABAergic mIPSCs. However, acetylcholine did not affect the GABA-induced membrane currents. This facilitatory action of acetylcholine disappeared in the presence of mecamylamine, a nonselective nicotinic receptor antagonist, and mimicked by nicotine, a nicotinic receptor agonist. The nicotine-induced increase in mIPSC frequency was completely blocked by dihydro-β-erythroidine, a selective β2-containing nicotinic receptor antagonist, but not methyllycaconitine or α-bungarotoxin, selective α7 nicotinic receptor antagonists. The results suggest that acetylcholine or nicotine acts presynaptic β2-containing nicotinic receptors, presumably α4β2 nicotinic receptors, to enhance spontaneous GABA release onto PAG neurons. The nicotine-induced increase in mIPSC frequency was completely occluded in the presence of Cd2+, a general voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels blocker, and in the absence of extracellular Ca2+ or Na+. The results suggest that presynaptic nicotinic receptors are less permeable to Ca2+, and that the activation of these receptors depolarizes GABAergic nerve terminals. In conclusion, presynaptic nicotinic receptors would temporally regulate the excitability of PAG neurons being not overexcited and eventually contribute to the cholinergic modulation of output from the PAG. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Cholinergic modulation of spontaneous GABAergic currents (mIPSC) was studied using whole-cell patch methods in mouse accessory olfactory bulb slices. Carbachol (above 100µM) administration produced an increase in the mIPSC frequency in mitral cells, but did not affect the responses of mitral cells to GABA. The carbachol effect persisted in the presence of combined ionotropic and metabotropic glutamatergic receptor antagonists. The carbachol effect was reduced by the muscarinic receptor type-1 and -4 (M1 and M4) antagonist pirenzepine (10µM), but not by the M2 and M4 antagonist himbacine (10µM). The KCNQ/Kv7 potassium channel openers retigabine (80µM) and diclofenac (300µM) blocked the carbachol action, while the KCNQ potassium channel blocker XE-911 (20µM) increased the mIPSC frequency. XE-911''s action persisted in the presence of glutamate receptor blockers. In the presence of carbachol, mIPSCs were abolished by Ni (200µM), while being insensitive to the calcium channel blocker nimodipine (30µM), suggesting a role for R-type calcium channels in the GABA release. These results suggest that carbachol closed KCNQ channels by stimulating M1 receptors on granule cell dendrites, and the resulting depolarized and unstable membrane promoted calcium influx, thus increasing the GABA release. The possible role of acetylcholine in facilitating formation of a pheromone memory in mice is also discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background and Purpose: Benzodiazepines (BDZs) are widely used in clinical practice and are known as positive modulators of GABAergic currents. BDZs increase binding affinity and recently they were found to affect GABA(A) receptor gating, including desensitization. Binding and desensitization are also strongly modulated by extracellular pH, a factor that may be severely altered in a pathological brain. It is thus of interest to examine the combined action of BDZ and protons.Experimental Approach: Pharmacokinetic analysis was based on patch clamp recordings of miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) and current responses to GABA applications in rat cultured hippocampal neurons. High temporal resolution of currents evoked by exogenous GABA was achieved by using an ultrafast perfusion system (exchange time ca. 80 micros).Key Results: At acidic pH, flurazepam produced a stronger enhancement of mIPSC amplitudes than at physiological pH. At low GABA concentrations, flurazepam markedly enhanced current amplitudes both at normal and acidic pH, but at the latter, the relative effect was larger. In contrast, at saturating GABA concentrations, flurazepam reduced current amplitudes at both pH 7.2 and 6.0. The slowing of deactivation kinetics by flurazepam decreased with GABA concentration, but at pH 6.0, this trend was shifted toward a higher GABA concentration.Conclusions and Implications: Acidification of extracellular medium may significantly affect the susceptibility of phasic and tonic components of GABAergic currents to modulation by BDZs. Quantitative analysis and model simulations indicate that protons and flurazepam additively affect binding and desensitization of GABA(A) receptors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Glucocorticoids secreted in response to stress activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis feed back onto the hypothalamus to rapidly suppress neuroendocrine activation, including oxytocin and vasopressin secretion. Here we provide a brief review focused on our recent findings of a rapid glucocorticoid-induced opposing regulation of glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) inputs to magnocellular neurons via the release of distinct retrograde messengers. The stress hormone corticosterone and its synthetic analogue dexamethasone elicit the rapid retrograde release of endocannabinoids by activating a novel membrane-associated, G protein-coupled receptor in parvocellular and magnocellular neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Glucocorticoids also cause the rapid retrograde release of an unknown messenger that facilitates presynaptic GABA release onto magnocellular neuroendocrine cells. These finding suggest that there is a strict synapse-specific segregation of the opposing actions of the two retrogradely released messengers. Thus, the combined actions of glucocorticoids cause a rapid synaptic inhibition of the magnocellular neurons and would be expected, therefore, to mediate a rapid feedback inhibition of the secretion of oxytocin and vasopressin during stress activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The majority of hippocampal interneurons strongly express GABAA receptors containing the α1 subunit, suggesting that inhibitory control of interneurons is important for proper function of hippocampal circuits. Here, we investigated with immunohistochemical and electrophysiological techniques how these GABAA receptors are replaced in mice carrying a targeted deletion of the α1-subunit gene (α10/0 mice). Using markers of five major populations of CA1 interneurons (parvalbumin, calretinin, calbindin, neuropeptide Y and somatostatin), we show that these interneurons remain unaffected in α10/0 mice. In triple immunofluorescence staining experiments combining these markers with the GABAA receptor α1, α2 or α3 subunit and gephyrin, we demonstrate a strong increase in α3- and α2-GABAA receptors clustered at postsynaptic sites along with gephyrin in most CA1 interneurons in α10/0 mice. The changes were cell type-specific and resulted in an increased number of GABAergic synapses on interneurons. These adjustments were mirrored functionally by retention of spontaneous IPSCs with prolonged decay kinetics, as shown by whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of CA1 interneurons. However, a significant decrease in frequency and amplitude of miniature IPSCs was evident, suggesting reduced affinity of postsynaptic receptors and/or impaired vesicular GABA release. Finally, to assess whether these compensatory changes are sufficient to protect against a pathological challenge, we tested the susceptibility of α10/0 mice against kainic acid-induced excitotoxicity. No genotype difference was observed in the effects of kainic acid, indicating that the absence of a major GABAA receptor subtype is functionally compensated for in hippocampal interneurons by a reorganization of inhibitory circuits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Estrogens exert a variety of modulatory effects on the structure and function of the nervous system. In particular, 17 β-estradiol was found to affect GABAergic inhibition in adult animals but its action on GABAergic currents during development has not been elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the effect of 17 β-estradiol on hippocampal neurons developing in vitro. In this model, mIPSC kinetics showed acceleration with age along with increased α1 subunit expression, similarly as in vivo. Long-term treatment with 17 β-estradiol increased mIPSC amplitudes in neurons cultured for 6–8 and 9–11DIV and prolonged the mIPSC decaying phase only in the 9–11DIV group. The time needed for the onset of 17 β-estradiol effect on mIPSC amplitude was approximately 48h. In the period of 9–11DIV, treatment with 17 β-estradiol strongly reduced the tonic conductance activated by low GABA concentrations. The effects of 17 β-estradiol on mIPSCs and tonic conductance were not correlated with any change in expression of considered GABAAR subunits (α1–3, α5–6, γ2) while α4 and δ subunits were at the detection limit. In conclusion, we provide evidence that 17 β-estradiol differentially affects the phasic and tonic components of GABAergic currents in neurons developing in vitro. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Miniature GABAA receptor-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in cortical pyramidal neurons have previously been categorized into two types: small amplitude mIPSCs with a mono-exponential deactivation (mono-mIPSCs) and relatively larger mIPSCs with bi-exponential deactivation (bi-mIPSCs). The aim of this study was to determine if the GABAA channels that underlie these mIPSCSs are molecularly distinct. We found, using non-stationary noise analysis, that the difference in their amplitude could be not accounted for by their single channel conductance (both were 40 pS). Next, using α subunit selective GABAA receptor modulators, we examined the identity of the α subunits that may be expressed in the synapses that give rise to these mIPSCs. Zolpidem (100 and 500 nm, α1 selective) affected the deactivation of a subset of the mono-mIPSCs, indicating that α1 subunits are not highly expressed in these synapses. However, zolpidem (100 nm) prolonged the deactivation of all bi-mIPSCs, indicating a high abundance of α1 subunits in these synapses. SB-205384 (α3 selective) had no effect on the mono-mIPSCs but the bi-mIPSCs were prolonged. Furosemide (α4 selective) reduced the amplitude of only the mono-mIPSCs. L655,708 (α5 selective) reduced the amplitude of both populations and shortened the duration of the mono-mIPSCs. Finally, we found that the neuroactive steroid pregesterone sulphate reduced the amplitude of both mIPSC types. These results provide pharmacological evidence that synapses on cortical pyramidal neurons are molecularly distinct. The purpose of these different types of synapses may be to provide different inhibitory timing patterns on these cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Social isolation of rats immediately after weaning is associated to a reduction in the cerebrocortical and plasma concentrations of progesterone and its metabolites 3α,5α-TH PROG and 3α,5α-THDOC. Although we found that the basal plasma concentration of adrenocorticotropic hormone in isolated rats was slightly decreased compared with that in group-housed animals no other significant changes were found in the steroidogenic machinery (peripheral benzodiazepine receptors, steroidogenic regulatory protein (StAR)). However, the functional response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis HPA axis to an acute stressful stimulus (foot shock), or to an acute injection of ethanol or isoniazid is markedly increased in isolated rats. Behavioral studies have also indicated that the ability of ethanol to inhibit isoniazid-induced convulsions is greater in isolated rats than in group-housed animals and this effect of isolation is prevented by treatment with the 5α-reductase inhibitor finasteride. Social isolation modified the effects of ethanol on the amounts of StAR mRNA and protein in the brain suggesting an alteration in the mechanism of cholesterol transport in mithocondria. Moreover, the amounts of the α4 and δ subunits of the GABAA receptor in the hippocampus were increased in isolated rats, and these effects were accompanied by an increase in GABAA receptor-mediated tonic inhibitory currents in granule cells of the dentate gyrus. Ethanol also increased the amplitude of GABAA receptor-mediated miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSC) recorded from CA1 pyramidal neurons with a greater potency in hippocampal slices prepared from socially isolated rats than in those from group-housed, an effect inhibited by finasteride. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The sulphydryl alkylating agent N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) has been often used as an uncoupler of pertussis toxin-sensitive G-proteins. However, the effects of NEM on γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synaptic transmission remain controversial. Using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique, GABAA receptor-mediated postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) have been recorded from Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells in layer I of the neonatal mouse visual cortex. NEM increased the frequencies of both spontaneous and miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) without an effect on the median mIPSC amplitudes or mIPSC kinetics. The NEM actions on mIPSCs did not depend on the extracellular Ca2+, Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A activities. NEM increased the mean amplitudes of evoked IPSCs and strongly decreased the paired-pulse ratio. The size of the readily releasable pool of presynaptic vesicles (RRP) was estimated using a high-frequency stimulation protocol. The RRP size was not affected by NEM. In addition, NEM significantly decreased the latency between the stimulus and the onset of GABA release. These results suggest that NEM selectively increases GABA release probability. At postnatal day 2, mIPSCs were observed only in about 30% of CR cells. NEM application revealed, however, that more than 90% of CR cells receive GABAergic inputs. Therefore, NEM seems to be a useful tool to verify the existence of ‘silent’ GABAergic synapses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ethanol has actions on cerebellar Purkinje neurons that can result either in a net excitation or in inhibition of neuronal activity. The present study examines the interplay of presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms to determine the net effect of ethanol on the neuronal firing rate of cerebellar Purkinje neurons. Methods: Whole-cell voltage-clamp recording of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) from Purkinje neurons in cerebellar slices was used to examine the effect of ethanol on presynapticsynaptic release of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate. Extracellular recording was used to examine the net action of both presynaptic and postsynaptic effects of ethanol on the firing rate of Purkinje neurons. Results: Under whole-cell voltage clamp, the frequency of bicuculline-sensitive miniature postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) was increased dose-dependently by 25, 50, and 100 mM ethanol without any change in amplitude or decay time. Despite this evidence of increased release of GABA by ethanol, application of 50 mM ethanol caused an increase in firing in some neurons and a decrease in firing in others with a nonrandom distribution. When both glutamatergic and GABAergic influences were removed by simultaneous application of 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione and picrotoxin, respectively, ethanol caused only an increase in firing rate. Conclusions: These data are consistent with a dual action of ethanol on cerebellar Purkinje neuron activity. Specifically, ethanol acts presynaptically to increase inhibition by release of GABA, while simultaneously acting postsynaptically to increase intrinsic excitatory drive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Binge-like ethanol treatment of septal neurons blunts GABAAR-mediated miniature postsynaptic currents (mPSCs), suggesting it arrests synaptic development. Ethanol may disrupt postsynaptic maturation by blunting feedback signaling through immature GABAARs. Here, the impact of ethanol on the sensitivity of mPSCs to zolpidem, zinc and 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one (3α-OH-DHP) was tested. The decay phase of mPSCs showed concentration-dependent potentiation by zolpidem (0.03–100 μM), which was substantially blunted after ethanol exposure. Since zolpidem potentiation exhibited a substantial age-dependent increase in untreated neurons, this finding supported the idea that ethanol arrests synaptic development. GABAAR α1 subunit protein also increased with age in untreated neurons, paralleling enhanced sensitivity to zolpidem. Surprisingly, α1 levels were not reduced by binge ethanol even though mPSCs were relatively zolpidem-insensitive. Zinc (3–30 μM) decreased mPSC parameters in a concentration- and age-related manner with older untreated cells showing less inhibition. However, there was no increase in mPSC zinc sensitivity after binge ethanol as would be expected if a general arrest of synaptic maturation had occurred. 3α-OH-DHP (3–1000 nM) induced concentration-dependent potentiation of mPSC decay. Although potentiation was age-independent, binge ethanol treatment exaggerated sensitivity to this neurosteroid. Finally, chronic picrotoxin pretreatment (100 μM) intended to mimic GABAAR inhibition from ethanol pretreatment did not significantly change mPSC modulation by zolpidem, zinc or 3α-OH-DHP. These results suggest that binge ethanol treatment selectively arrests a subset of processes important for maturation of postsynaptic GABAA Rs. However, it is unlikely that ethanol causes a broad arrest of postsynaptic development through a direct inhibition of GABAAR signaling. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The homeostatic plasticity hypothesis suggests that neuronal activity scales synaptic strength. This study analyzed effects of activity deprivation on GABAergic synapses in cultured hippocampal neurons using patch clamp electrophysiology to record mIPSCs and immunocytochemistry to visualize presynaptic GAD-65 and the γ2 subunit of the GABAA receptor. When neural activity was blocked for 48 h with tetrodotoxin (TTX, 1 μM), the amplitude of mIPSCs was reduced, corresponding with diminished sizes of GAD-65 puncta and γ2 clusters. Treatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist APV (50 μM) or the AMPA receptor antagonist DNQX (20 μM) mimicked these effects, and co-application of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, 100 ng/mL) overcame them. Moreover, when neurons were treated with BDNF alone for 48 h, these effects were reversed via the TrkB receptor. Overall, these results suggest that activity-dependent scaling of inhibitory synaptic strength can be modulated by BDNF/TrkB-mediated signaling. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Activation of cannabinoid receptors suppresses neurotransmitter release in various brain regions. In cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs), cannabinoid agonists suppress both EPSC and IPSC evoked by stimulating the corresponding inputs. However, cannabinoid agonists suppress miniature IPSC (mIPSC) but not miniature EPSC (mEPSC) at normal external Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]o). Therefore, cannabinoid agonists are thought to suppress release machinery for IPSCs but not that for EPSCs. Here we investigated the possible cause of this difference and found that cannabinoid agonists selectively suppressed Ca2+-enhanced miniature events. A cannabinoid agonist, WIN55,212-2 (5 µM), did not affect mEPSC frequency with 2 mM extracellular Ca2+ (Ca2+o). However, WIN55,212-2 became effective when mEPSC frequency was enhanced by elevation of presynaptic Ca2+level by perfusion with 5mM Ca2+o or bath application of A23187, a Ca2+ ionophore. In contrast, WIN55,212-2 suppressed mIPSC frequency with 2mM Ca2+o, but it became ineffective when the presynaptic Ca2+ level was lowered by perfusion with a Ca2+-free solution containing BAPTA-AM. Experiments with systematic [Ca2+]o changes revealed that mIPSC but not mEPSC regularly involved events elicited by presynaptic Ca2+ rise with 2mM Ca2+o. Importantly, Ca2+-enhancement of mEPSC and mIPSC was not attributable to activation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. Activation of GABAB receptor or group III metabotropic glutamate receptor, which couple to Gi/o-protein, also preferentially suppressed Ca2+-enhanced miniature events in PCs. These results suggest that the occurrence of Ca2+-enhanced miniature events at normal [Ca2+]o determines the sensitivity to the presynaptic depression mediated by cannabinoid receptors and other Gi/o-coupled receptors in PCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Cognitive deficits persist in patients who survive traumatic brain injury (TBI). Lateral fluid percussion brain injury in the mouse, a model of human TBI, results in hippocampal-dependent cognitive impairment, similar to retrograde amnesia often associated with TBI. To identify potential substrates of the cognitive impairment, we evaluated regional neuronal loss, regional hippocampal excitability and inhibitory synaptic transmission. Design-based stereology demonstrated an approximate 40% loss of neurons through all subregions of the hippocampus following injury compared with sham. Input/output curves recorded in slices of injured brain demonstrated increased net synaptic efficacy in the dentate gyrus in concert with decreased net synaptic efficacy and excitatory postsynaptic potential-spike relationship in area CA1 compared with sham slices. Pharmacological agents modulating inhibitory transmission partially restored regional injury-induced alterations in net synaptic efficacy. Both evoked and spontaneous miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) recorded in surviving dentate granule neurons were smaller and less frequent in injured brains than in uninjured brains. Conversely, both evoked and spontaneous mIPSCs recorded in surviving area CA1 pyramidal neurons were larger in injured brains than in uninjured brains. Together, these alterations suggest that regional hippocampal function is altered in the injured brain. This study demonstrates for the first time that brain injury selectively disrupts hippocampal function by causing uniform neuronal loss, inhibitory synaptic dysfunction, and regional, but opposing, shifts in circuit excitability. These changes may contribute to the cognitive impairments that result from brain injury. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Zolpidem is a hypnotic benzodiazepine site agonist with some γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor subtype selectivity. Here, we have tested the effects of zolpidem on the hippocampus of γ2 subunit (γ2F77I) point mutant mice. Analysis of forebrain GABAA receptor expression with immunocytochemistry, quantitative [3H]muscimol and [35S] t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate (TBPS) autoradiography, membrane binding with [3H]flunitrazepam and [3H]muscimol, and comparison of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) parameters did not reveal any differences between homozygous γ2I77/I77 and γ2F77/F77 mice. However, quantitative immunoblot analysis of γ2I77/I77 hippocampi showed some increased levels of γ2, α1, α4 and δ subunits, suggesting that differences between strains may exist in unassembled subunit levels, but not in assembled receptors. Zolpidem (1 µ m) enhanced the decay of mIPSCs in CA1 pyramidal cells of control (C57BL/6J, γ2F77/F77) mice by ∼ 60%, and peak amplitude by ∼ 20% at 33–34 °C in vitro. The actions of zolpidem (100 n m or 1 µ m) were substantially reduced in γ2I77/I77 mice, although residual effects included a 9% increase in decay and 5% decrease in peak amplitude. Similar results were observed in CA1 stratum oriens/alveus interneurons. At network level, the effect of zolpidem (10 µ m) on carbachol-induced oscillations in the CA3 area of γ2I77/I77 mice was significantly different compared with controls. Thus, the γ2F77I point mutation virtually abolished the actions of zolpidem on GABAA receptors in the hippocampus. However, some residual effects of zolpidem may involve receptors that do not contain the γ2 subunit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ionotropic γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors form a large family of molecular isoforms with distinct properties. We have characterized a distinct new type of GABA receptors in CA1 pyramidal cells in rat hippocampal slices. Somatic application of GABA induced currents which were partially suppressed by (1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridin-4-yl)methylphosphinic acid (TPMPA), a specific antagonist of GABAC receptors. This sensitivity was enhanced when we evoked the currents by the GABAC receptor agonist cis-4-aminocrotonic acid (CACA). However, both GABA- and CACA-evoked currents were sensitive towards bicuculline and thus lack the defining feature of GABAC receptors, which are insensitive towards this antagonist. Spontaneous miniature post-synaptic currents (mIPSCs) revealed a similar pharmacological behaviour. We conclude that juvenile CA1 pyramidal cells express a fraction of ionotropic GABA receptors with mixed pharmacological properties of both, GABAA and GABAC receptors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An interaction with the GABA type A (GABAA) receptor has long been recognized as one of the main neurochemical mechanisms underlying many of the pharmacological actions of ethanol. However, more recent data have suggested that certain behavioral and electrophysiological actions of ethanol are mediated by an increase in brain concentration of neuroactive steroids that results from stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Neuroactive steroids such as 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one (3α,5α-THP) are, in fact, potent and efficacious endogenous positive modulators of GABAA receptor function. Because neurosteroids can be synthesized de novo in the brain, we have investigated whether ethanol might affect both neurosteroid synthesis and GABAA receptor function in isolated rat hippocampal tissue. Here, we show that ethanol increases the concentration of 3α,5α-THP as well as the amplitude of GABAA receptor-mediated IPSCs recorded from CA1 pyramidal neurons in isolated hippocampal slices. These effects are shared by the neurosteroid precursor progesterone, the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor-selective agonist CB34, and γ-hydroxybutyrate, all of which are known to increase the formation of neuroactive steroids in plasma and in the brain. The action of ethanol on GABAA receptor-mediated IPSC amplitude is biphasic, consisting of a rapid, direct effect on GABAA receptor activity and an indirect effect that appears to be mediated by neurosteroid synthesis. Furthermore, ethanol affects GABAA receptor activity through a presynaptic action, an effect that is not dependent on neurosteroid formation. These observations suggest that ethanol may modulate GABAA receptor function through an increase in de novo neurosteroid synthesis in the brain that is independent of the HPA axis. This novel mechanism may have a crucial role in m. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agonists of the allosteric benzodiazepine site of GABAA receptors bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits. Here, we tested the in vivo contribution of the γ2 subunit to the actions of zolpidem, an α1 subunit selective benzodiazepine agonist, by generating mice with a phenylalanine (F) to isoleucine (I) substitution at position 77 in the γ2 subunit. The γ2F77I mutation has no major effect on the expression of GABAA receptor subunits in the cerebellum. The potency of zolpidem, but not that of flurazepam, for the inhibition of [3H]flunitrazepam binding to cerebellar membranes is greatly reduced in γ2I77/I77 mice. Zolpidem (1 μM) increased both the amplitude and decay of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in Purkinje cells of control C57BL/6 (34% and 92%, respectively) and γ2F77/F77 (20% and 84%) mice, but not in those of γ2F77I mice. Zolpidem tartrate had no effect on exploratory activity (staircase test) or motor performance (rotarod test) in γ2I77/I77 mice at doses up to 30 mg/kg (i.p.) that strongly sedated or impaired the control mice. Flurazepam was equally effective in enhancing mIPSCs and disrupting performance in the rotarod test in control and γ2I77/I77 mice. These results show that the effect of zolpidem, but not flurazepam, is selectively eliminated in the brain by the γ2F77I point mutation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The role of the scaffolding protein gephyrin at hippocampal inhibitory synapses is not well understood. A previous study (Kneussel et al., 1999) reported a complete loss of synaptic clusters of the major GABA[subA] R subunits α2 and γ2 in hippocampal neurons lacking gephyrin. In contrast, we show here that GABA[subA] R α2 and γ2 subunits do cluster at pyramidal synapses in hippocampal cultures from gephyrin-/-mice, albeit at reduced levels compared with control neurons. Synaptic aggregation of GABA[subA] R α1 on interneurons was identical between the culture types. Furthermore, we recorded miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) from gephyrin-/- neurons. Although the mean mIPSC amplitude was reduced (by 23%) compared with control, the frequency of these events was unchanged. Cell surface labeling experiments indicated that gephyrin contributes, in part, to aggregation but not to insertion or stabilization of GABA[subA] R α2 and γ2 in the plasma membrane. Thus, a major gephyrin-independent component of hippocampal inhibitory synapse development must exist. We also report that glycine receptors cluster at GABAergic synapses in a subset of hippocampal interneurons and pyramidal neurons. Unlike GABA[subA] Rs, synaptic clustering of glycine receptors was completely abolished in gephyrin-/- neurons. Finally, artificial extrasynaptic aggregation of GABA[subA] R was able to redistribute and cocluster gephyrin by a mechanism requiring a neuron-specific modification or intermediary protein. We propose a model of hippocampal inhibitory synapse development in which some GABA[subA] Rs cluster at synapses by a gephyrinindependent mechanism and recruit gephyrin. This clustered gephyrin may then recruit glycine receptors, additional GABA[subA] Rs, and other signal-transducing components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) is a key regulator of behavioral state that promotes sleep by directly inhibiting brain regions that maintain wakefulness. Subarachnoid administration of adenosine (AD) or AD agonists promotes sleep and induces expression of Fos protein in VLPO neurons. Therefore, activation of VLPO neurons may contribute to the somnogenic actions of AD. To define the mechanism through which AD activates VLPO neurons, we prepared hypothalamic slices from 9 to 12-day-old rat pups and recorded from 43 neurons in the galaninergic VLPO cluster; nine neurons contained galanin mRNA by post hoc in situ hybridization. Bath application of AD (20 μM) to seven of these neurons had no direct effect but caused a significant decrease in the frequency of spontaneous miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents in the presence of tetrodotoxin, indicating a presynaptic site of action. We conclude that AD-mediated disinhibition increases the excitability of VLPO neurons thus contributing to the somnogenic properties of AD. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We studied the mechanisms by which GABA release is reduced in the retrograde signaling process called depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI). DSI is mediated by endocannabinoids in acute and cultured organotypic hippocampal slices. We examined a variety of K+ channel antagonists to determine the nature of the K+ channel that, when blocked, reduces DSI. Among 4-AP, TEA, dendrotoxin, Cs, margatoxin, and charybdotoxin, only 4-AP was highly effective in blocking DSI, suggesting that a K+ channel composed in part of KV1.4, KV1.5 or KV1.7 subunits can readily regulate DSI. The inhibition of DSI by 4-AP is largely overcome by reducing [Ca2+]o, however, suggesting that DSI expression can be prevented by saturation of the release process when a KV1.X channel is inhibited. DSI of agatoxin- and TTX-insensitive mIPSCs was unaffected by 4-AP, but was largely occluded by ω-conotoxin GVIA, indicating that block of presynaptic N-type Ca2+ channels is probably a major mechanism of DSI expression. Significant DSI of mIPSCs remained in ω-conotoxin, hence we infer that block of N-channels does not fully explain hippocampal DSI expression. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Venus fluorescent cells in the dl BST were CRH neurons in CRF-Venus ΔNeo mice. • Voltage-clamp was applied to investigate CRH neurons in the dl BST after formalin injection. • Formalin increased the frequency of mEPSCs in CRH neurons only in females. • In both males and females, mIPSCs in CRH neurons were not changed after formalin injection. • Interphase in formalin test increased synaptic input to CRH neurons of the dl BST in females. We earlier reported female-biased, sex-specific involvement of the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dl BST) in the formalin-induced pain response in rats. The present study investigated pain effects on mice behaviors. Because the dl BST is densely populated with corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons, we examined sex differences in these parameters for the dl BST CRH neurons in male and female mice of a mouse line for which the CRH gene promoter (corticotropin-releasing factor [CRF]-Venus ΔNeo) controls the expression of the modified yellow fluorescent protein (Venus). Approximately 92% of Venus-positive cells in the dl BST were also CRH mRNA-positive, irrespective of sex. Therefore, the cells identified using Venus fluorescence were regarded as CRH neurons. A female-biased sex difference was observed in pain-induced behaviors during the interphase (5–15 min after formalin injection) but not during the later phase (phase 2, 15–60 min) in wild-type mice. In CRF-Venus ΔNeo mice, a female-biased difference was observed in either the earlier phase (phase 1, 0–5 min) or the interphase, but not in phase 2. Patch-clamp recordings taken using an acute BST slice obtained from a CRF-Venus ΔNeo mouse after formalin injection showed miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) and miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs). Remarkably, the mEPSCs frequency was higher in the Venus-expressing cells of formalin-injected female mice than in vehicle-treated female mice. Male mice showed no increase in mEPSC frequency by formalin injection. Formalin injection had no effect on mEPSC or mIPSC amplitudes in either sex. Pain-induced changes in mEPSC frequency in putative CRH neurons were phase-dependent. Results show that excitatory synaptic inputs to BST CRH neurons are temporally enhanced along with behavioral sex differences in pain response, suggesting that pain signals alter the BST CRH neurons excitability in a sex-dependent manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Motor skill training results in increase in mEPSCs frequency in L2/3 neurons in the primary motor cortex. • Increase in mEPSCs amplitude is only observed in a subset of L2/3 neurons. • No changes in mIPSCs are observed following motor skill training. Motor skill training induces functional and structural changes in the primary motor cortex. New dendritic spines are formed with training and the horizontal connections in the layer II/III area of the primary motor cortex are strengthened. Here we investigated the functional synaptic properties of pyramidal neurons following motor skill training. We trained mice on a single forelimb-reaching task for five days and performed whole cell recordings from layer II/III pyramidal neurons in the forelimb representation area of the primary motor cortex in the ipsilateral (untrained) and contralateral (trained) hemispheres in acute brain slices. Success rate in the forelimb-reaching task rapidly improved over the first 3 days and stabilized on subsequent days. After five days of training, a time at which learning has peaked and synaptic strengthening with field potential recordings show enhancement, we observed an increase in mEPSC frequency while increases in mEPSC amplitudes was only observed in 20% of the cells. Increase in excitatory synaptic properties were correlated with improved motor skill. Measurement of miniature IPSC (mIPSC) after five days of training showed no difference in either frequency or amplitude between the trained and untrained hemispheres. Our present results indicate dynamic changes in excitatory but not inhibitory synapses in M1 layer II/III pyramidal neurons at the late stages of motor skill learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescence is marked by increased vulnerability to mental disorders and maladaptive behaviors, including anorexia nervosa. Food-restriction (FR) stress evokes foraging, which translates to increased wheel running exercise (EX) for caged rodents, a maladaptive behavior, since it does not improve food access and exacerbates weight loss. While almost all adolescent rodents increase EX following FR, some then become resilient by suppressing EX by the second-fourth FR day, which minimizes weight loss. We asked whether GABAergic plasticity in the hippocampus may underlie this gain in resilience. In vitro slice physiology revealed doubling of pyramidal neurons' GABA response in the dorsal hippocampus of food-restricted animals with wheel access (FR + EX for 4 days), but without increase of mIPSC amplitudes. mIPSC frequency increased by 46%, but electron microscopy revealed no increase in axosomatic GABAergic synapse number onto pyramidal cells and only a modest increase (26%) of GABAergic synapse lengths. These changes suggest increase of vesicular release probability and extrasynaptic GABAA receptors and unsilencing of GABAergic synapses. GABAergic synapse lengths correlated with individual's suppression of wheel running and weight loss. These analyses indicate that EX can have dual roles-exacerbate weight loss but also promote resilience to some by dampening hippocampal excitability., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

At chemical synapses, voltage-activated calcium channels (VACCs) mediate Ca 2+ influx to trigger action potential-evoked neurotransmitter release. However, the mechanisms by which Ca 2+ regulates spontaneous transmission have not been fully determined. We have shown that VACCs are a major trigger of spontaneous release at neocortical inhibitory synapses but not at excitatory synapses, suggesting fundamental differences in spontaneous neurotransmission at GABAergic and glutamatergic synapses. Recently, VACC blockers were reported to reduce spontaneous release of glutamate and it was proposed that there was conservation of underlying mechanisms of neurotransmission at excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that the different effects on excitatory and inhibitory synapses may have resulted from off-target actions of Cd 2+ , a nonselective VACC blocker, or other variations in experimental conditions. Here we report that in mouse neocortical neurons, selective and nonselective VACC blockers inhibit spontaneous release at inhibitory but not at excitatory terminals, and that this pattern is observed in culture and slice preparations as well as in synapses from acute slices of the auditory brainstem. The voltage dependence of Cd 2+ block of VACCs accounts for the apparent lower potency of Cd 2+ on spontaneous release of GABA than on VACC current amplitudes. Our findings indicate fundamental differences in the regulation of spontaneous release at inhibitory and excitatory synapses by stochastic VACC activity that extend beyond the cortex to the brainstem. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Presynaptic Ca 2+ entry via voltage-activated calcium channels (VACCs) is the major trigger of action potential-evoked synaptic release. However, the role of VACCs in the regulation of spontaneous neurotransmitter release (in the absence of a synchronizing action potential) remains controversial. We show that spontaneous release is affected differently by VACCs at excitatory and inhibitory synapses. At inhibitory synapses, stochastic openings of VACCs trigger the majority of spontaneous release, whereas they do not affect spontaneous release at excitatory synapses. We find this pattern to be wide ranging, holding for large and small synapses in the neocortex and brainstem. These findings indicate fundamental differences of the Ca 2+ dependence of spontaneous release at excitatory and inhibitory synapses and heterogeneity of the mechanisms of release across the CNS., (Copyright © 2017 the authors 0270-6474/17/374301-10$15.00/0.)

Chronic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) blockade with high affinity competitive and uncompetitive antagonists can lead to seizure exacerbation, presumably due to an imbalance in glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission. Acute administration of the moderate affinity NMDAR antagonist memantine in vivo has been associated with pro- and anticonvulsive properties. Chronic treatment with memantine can exacerbate seizures. Therefore, we hypothesized that chronic memantine treatment would increase glutamatergic and decrease GABAergic transmission, similar to high affinity competitive and uncompetitive antagonists. To test this hypothesis, organotypic hippocampal slice culture were treated for 17-21 days with memantine and then subjected to electrophysiological recordings. Whole-cell recordings from dentate granule cells revealed that chronic memantine treatment slightly, but significantly increased sEPSC frequency, mEPSC amplitude and mEPSC charge transfer, consistent with minimally increased glutamatergic transmission. Chronic memantine treatment also increased both sIPSC and mIPSC frequency and amplitude, suggestive of increased GABAergic transmission. Results suggest that a simple imbalance between glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission may not underlie memantine's ictogenic properties. That said, glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission were assayed independently of one another in the current study. More complex interactions between glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission may prevail under conditions of intact circuitry., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)