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Gene drive technologies (GDTs) bias the inheritance of a genetic element within a population of non-human organisms, promoting its progressive spread across this population. If successful, GDTs may be used to counter intractable problems such as vector-borne diseases. A key issue in the debate on GDTs relates to what governance is appropriate for these technologies. While governance mechanisms for GDTs are to a significant extent proposed and shaped by professional experts, the perspectives of these experts have not been explored in depth. A total of 33 GDT experts from different professional disciplines were interviewed to identify, better understand, and juxtapose their perspectives on GDT governance. The pseudonymized transcripts were analyzed thematically. Three main themes were identified: (1) engagement of communities, stakeholders, and publics; (2) power dynamics, and (3) decision-making. There was broad consensus amongst respondents that it is important to engage communities, stakeholders, and publics. Nonetheless, respondents had diverging views on the reasons for doing so and the timing and design of engagement. Respondents also outlined complexities and challenges related to engagement. Moreover, they brought up the power dynamics that are present in GDT research. Respondents stressed the importance of preventing the recurrence of historical injustices and reflected on dilemmas regarding whether and to what extent (foreign) researchers can legitimately make demands regarding local governance. Finally, respondents had diverging views on whether decisions about GDTs should be made in the same way as decisions about other environmental interventions, and on the decision-making model that should be used to decide about GDT deployment. The insights obtained in this interview study give rise to recommendations for the design and evaluation of GDT governance. Moreover, these insights point to unresolved normative questions that need to be addressed to move from general commitments to concrete obligations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent developments in gene transfer and gene editing provide promising avenues for the treatment of monogenetic paediatric diseases. First-in-human (FIH) trials are a crucial step towards market authorization. Such trials involve notable uncertainties and risks, and for diseases that manifest in early childhood adult data are often lacking. In research involving minors, an important requirement to allow exposure to more than minimal risks is that there must be a prospect of direct benefit for the minors involved. However, in FIH pediatric gene therapy trials it can be questioned whether a certain therapy meets this requirement for a prospect of direct benefit and when such trials should be allowed, due to the uncertainty that accompanies them. To aid the review of these trials, we investigated definitions of the prospect of direct benefit in the ethical literature and important regulatory documents, such as the European Clinical Trial Regulation, FDA Common Rule and CIOMS guidelines. Additionally, we explored if and how preclinical research can substantiate evidence for the prospect of direct benefit. We found that "benefit" is inconsistently defined in regulatory documents, allowing different types of benefit to influence risk-benefit analysis. In some regulatory documents, direct benefit solely refers to clinical benefits that result from an intervention, whereas other regulations also include other, indirect, benefits in their definition of direct benefit. In addition, we found that what is meant with "prospect" is ill-defined in many regulatory documents. This raises questions on how this requirement for a "prospect" of direct benefit needs to be interpreted. We provide recommendations how this prospect could be understood. To do so, we look at different types of evidence - mechanical and statistical - that are used to substantiate claims of effectiveness, and thus potential direct benefit. Clearly defining and accurately interpreting the requirement for a prospect of direct benefit is crucial for effectively reviewing FIH pediatric gene therapy trials. A failure to do so could lead to mislabeling trials as providing a prospect of direct benefit, fostering therapeutic misconception and accepting trials with an unfavourable risk-benefit ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared.

Regenerative Medicine promises to develop treatments to regrow healthy tissues and cure the physical body. One of the emerging developments within this field is regenerative implants, such as jawbone or heart valve implants, that can be broken down by the body and are gradually replaced with living tissue. Yet challenges for embodiment are to be expected, given that the implants are designed to integrate deeply into the tissue of the living body, so that implant and body become one. In this paper, we explore how regenerative implants may affect the embodied experience of implant recipients. To this end, we take a phenomenological approach. First, we explore what insights the existing phenomenological and empirical literature on embodiment offers regarding the experience of illness and of living with regular (non-regenerative) implants and organ transplants. Second, we apply these insights to better understand how future implant recipients might experience living with regenerative implants. Third, we conclude that concepts and considerations from the existing phenomenological literature do not sufficiently address what it might be like to live with an implantable technology that, over time, becomes one with the living body. We argue that the interwovenness and intimate relationship of people living with regenerative implants should be understood in terms of 'entanglement'. Entanglement allows us to explore the complexities of human-technology relations, acknowledging the inseparability of humans and implantable technologies. Our theoretical foundations regarding the role of embodiment may be tested empirically once more people will be living with regenerative implants., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Personalized 3D printed scaffolds are a new generation of implants for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine purposes. Scaffolds support cell growth, providing an artificial extracellular matrix for tissue repair and regeneration and can biodegrade once cells have assumed their physiological and structural roles. The ethical challenges and opportunities of these implants should be mapped in parallel with the life cycle of the scaffold to assist their development and implementation in a responsible, safe, and ethically sound manner. This article provides an overview of these relevant ethical aspects. We identified nine themes which were linked to three stages of the life cycle of the scaffold: the development process, clinical testing, and the implementation process. The described ethical issues are related to good research and clinical practices, such as privacy issues concerning digitalization, first-in-human trials, responsibility and commercialization. At the same time, this article also creates awareness for underexplored ethical issues, such as irreversibility, embodiment and the ontological status of these scaffolds. Moreover, it exemplifies how to include gender in the ethical assessment of new technologies. These issues are important for responsible development and implementation of personalized 3D printed scaffolds and in need of more attention within the additive manufacturing and tissue engineering field. Moreover, the insights of this review reveal unresolved qualitative empirical and normative questions that could further deepen the understanding and co-creation of the ethical implications of this new generation of implants., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Manon van Daal reports financial support was provided by Horizon 2020. Annelien L. Bredenoord reports a relationship with Member of Dutch Senate that includes: board membership and employment., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Gene drive technologies (GDTs) have been proposed as a potential new way to alleviate the burden of malaria, yet have also raised ethical questions. A central ethical question regarding GDTs relates to whether it is morally permissible to intentionally modify or eradicate mosquitoes in this way and how the inherent worth of humans and non-human organisms should be factored into determining this. Existing analyses of this matter have thus far generally relied on anthropocentric and zoocentric perspectives and rejected an individualist biocentric outlook in which all living organisms are taken to matter morally for their own sake. In this paper, we reconsider the implications of taking a biocentric approach and highlight nuances that may not be evident at first glance. First, we shortly discuss biocentric perspectives in general, and then outline Paul Taylor's biocentric theory of respect for nature. Second, we explore how conflicting claims towards different organisms should be prioritised from this perspective and subsequently apply this to the context of malaria control using GDTs. Our ethical analysis shows that this context invokes the principle of self-defence, which could override the pro tanto concerns that a biocentrist would have against modifying malaria mosquitoes in this way if certain conditions are met. At the same time, the case study of GDTs underlines the relevance of previously posed questions and criticism regarding the internal consistency of Taylor's egalitarian biocentrism., Competing Interests: Competing interests: ALB is a member of the Dutch Senate. NdG and KRJ have no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this research., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Despite widespread and worldwide efforts to eradicate vector-borne diseases such as malaria, these diseases continue to have an enormous negative impact on public health. For this reason, scientists are working on novel control strategies, such as gene drive technologies (GDTs). As GDT research advances, researchers are contemplating the potential next step of conducting field trials. An important point of discussion regarding these field trials relates to who should be informed, consulted, and involved in decision-making about their design and launch. It is generally argued that community members have a particularly strong claim to be engaged, and yet, disagreement and lack of clarity exist about how this "community" should be defined and delineated. In this paper, we shed light on this "boundary problem": the problem of determining how boundaries of inclusion and exclusion in (GDT) community engagement should be drawn. As our analysis demonstrates, the process of defining and delineating a community is itself normative. First, we explicate why it is important to define and delineate the community. Second, we demonstrate that different definitions of community are used and intermingled in the debate on GDTs, and argue in favor of distinguishing geographical, affected, cultural, and political communities. Finally, we propose initial guidance for deciding who should (not) be engaged in decision-making about GDT field trials, by arguing that the definition and delineation of the community should depend on the rationale for engagement and that the characteristics of the community itself can guide the effective design of community engagement strategies., (© 2023 The Authors. Bioethics published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objectives: IgA vasculitis (IgAV, formerly known as Henoch-Schönlein purpura) is the most common cause of systemic vasculitis in childhood. To date, there are no internationally agreed, evidence-based guidelines concerning the appropriate diagnosis and treatment of IgAV in children. Accordingly, treatment regimens differ widely. The European initiative SHARE (Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe) aims to optimize care for children with rheumatic diseases. The aim therefore was to provide internationally agreed consensus recommendations for diagnosis and treatment for children with IgAV., Methods: Recommendations were developed by a consensus process in accordance with the EULAR standard operating procedures. An extensive systematic literature review was performed, and evidence-based recommendations were extrapolated from the included papers. These were evaluated by a panel of 16 international experts via online surveys and subsequent consensus meeting, using nominal group technique. Recommendations were accepted when ⩾80% of experts agreed., Results: In total, 7 recommendations for diagnosis and 19 for treatment of paediatric IgAV were accepted. Diagnostic recommendations included: appropriate use of skin and renal biopsy, renal work-up and imaging. Treatment recommendations included: the importance of appropriate analgesia and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use and non-renal indications for CS use, as well as a structured approach to treating IgAV nephritis, including appropriate use of CS and second-line agents in mild, moderate and severe disease along with use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and maintenance therapy., Conclusion: The SHARE initiative provides international, evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of IgAV that will facilitate improvement and uniformity of care., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Society for Rheumatology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

In recent years, new genome editing technologies have emerged that can edit the genome of non-human animals with progressively increasing efficiency. Despite ongoing academic debate about the ethical implications of these technologies, no comprehensive overview of this debate exists. To address this gap in the literature, we conducted a systematic review of the reasons reported in the academic literature for and against the development and use of genome editing technologies in animals. Most included articles were written by academics from the biomedical or animal sciences. The reported reasons related to seven themes: human health, efficiency, risks and uncertainty, animal welfare, animal dignity, environmental considerations and public acceptability. Our findings illuminate several key considerations about the academic debate, including a low disciplinary diversity in the contributing academics, a scarcity of systematic comparisons of potential consequences of using these technologies, an underrepresentation of animal interests, and a disjunction between the public and academic debate on this topic. As such, this article can be considered a call for a broad range of academics to get increasingly involved in the discussion about genome editing, to incorporate animal interests and systematic comparisons, and to further discuss the aims and methods of public involvement. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'The ecology and evolution of prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems'.

Objectives: The European Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe initiative aimed to optimize care for children with rheumatic diseases. Kawasaki disease (KD) is the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children and an important cause of long-term cardiac disease into adulthood. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of KD is difficult due to the heterogeneity of the disease but is crucial for improving outcome. To date, there are no European internationally agreed, evidence-based guidelines concerning the diagnosis and treatment of KD in children. Accordingly, treatment regimens differ widely. The aim of this study is to provide consensus-based, European-wide evidence-informed recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of children with KD., Methods: Recommendations were developed using the EULAR's standard operating procedures. An extensive systematic literature search was performed, and evidence-based recommendations were extrapolated from the included papers. These were evaluated by a panel of international experts via online surveys and subsequently discussed in three consensus meetings, using nominal group technique. Recommendations were accepted when ⩾80% agreed., Results: In total, 17 recommendations for diagnosis and 14 for treatment of KD in children were accepted. Diagnostic recommendations included laboratory and imaging workup for complete as well as incomplete KD. Treatment recommendations included the importance of early treatment in both complete and incomplete KD, use of intravenous immunoglobulin, aspirin, corticosteroids for high-risk cases, and other treatment options for those with resistant disease., Conclusion: The Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe initiative provides international evidence-based recommendations for diagnosing and treating KD in children, facilitating improvement and uniformity of care., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Society for Rheumatology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: The European initiative Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe (SHARE) aimed to optimize care for children with rheumatic diseases. Systemic vasculitides are very rare in children. Consequently, despite recent advances, paediatric-specific information is sparse. The lack of evidence-based recommendations is an important, unmet need. This study aimed to provide recommendations for diagnosing and treating children with rare forms of childhood systemic vasculitis., Methods: Recommendations were developed by a consensus process in accordance with the European League Against Rheumatism standard operating procedures. A systematic literature review informed the recommendations, which were devised and evaluated by a panel of experts via an online survey, and two consensus meetings using nominal group technique. Recommendations were accepted when ⩾ 80% of experts agreed., Results: Ninety-three relevant articles were found, and 78 recommendations were accepted in the two consensus meetings. General, cross-cutting recommendations and disease-specific statements regarding the diagnosis and treatment of childhood-onset PAN, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, microscopic polyangiitis, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, and Takayasu arteritis are provided., Conclusion: These Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe recommendations were formulated through an evidence-based consensus process to support uniform, high-quality standard of care for children with rare forms of paediatric systemic vasculitis., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Society for Rheumatology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Lupus nephritis (LN) occurs in 50%-60% of patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE), leading to significant morbidity. Timely recognition of renal involvement and appropriate treatment are essential to prevent renal damage. The Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe (SHARE) initiative aimed to generate diagnostic and management regimens for children and adolescents with rheumatic diseases including cSLE. Here, we provide evidence-based recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of childhood LN. Recommendations were developed using the European League Against Rheumatism standard operating procedures. A European-wide expert committee including paediatric nephrology representation formulated recommendations using a nominal group technique. Six recommendations regarding diagnosis and 20 recommendations covering treatment choices and goals were accepted, including each class of LN, described in the International Society of Nephrology/Renal Pathology Society 2003 classification system. Treatment goal should be complete renal response. Treatment of class I LN should mainly be guided by other symptoms. Class II LN should be treated initially with low-dose prednisone, only adding a disease-modifying antirheumatic drug after 3 months of persistent proteinuria or prednisone dependency. Induction treatment of class III/IV LN should be mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) or intravenous cyclophosphamide combined with corticosteroids; maintenance treatment should be MMF or azathioprine for at least 3 years. In pure class V LN, MMF with low-dose prednisone can be used as induction and MMF as maintenance treatment. The SHARE recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of LN have been generated to support uniform and high-quality care for all children with SLE., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE) is a rare, multisystem and potentially life-threatening autoimmune disorder with significant associated morbidity. Evidence-based guidelines are sparse and management is often based on clinical expertise. SHARE (Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe) was launched to optimise and disseminate management regimens for children and young adults with rheumatic diseases like cSLE. Here, we provide evidence-based recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of cSLE. In view of extent and complexity of cSLE and its various manifestations, recommendations for lupus nephritis and antiphospholipid syndrome will be published separately. Recommendations were generated using the EULAR (European League Against Rheumatism) standard operating procedure. An expert committee consisting of paediatric rheumatologists and representation of paediatric nephrology from across Europe discussed evidence-based recommendations during two consensus meetings. Recommendations were accepted if >80% agreement was reached. A total of 25 recommendations regarding key approaches to diagnosis and treatment of cSLE were made. The recommendations include 11 on diagnosis, 9 on disease monitoring and 5 on general treatment. Topics included: appropriate use of SLE classification criteria, disease activity and damage indices; adequate assessment of autoantibody profiles; secondary macrophage activation syndrome; use of hydroxychloroquine and corticosteroid-sparing regimens; and the importance of addressing poor adherence. Ten recommendations were accepted regarding general diagnostic strategies and treatment indications of neuropsychiatric cSLE. The SHARE recommendations for cSLE and neuropsychiatric manifestations of cSLE have been formulated by an evidence-based consensus process to support uniform, high-quality standards of care for children with cSLE., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Objectives: JIA is an autoimmune disease involving disturbed T-cell homeostasis, marked by highly activated effector T cells. Autophagy, a lysosomal degradation pathway, is crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis by regulating the survival, differentiation and function of a large variety of cells, including T cells. The aim of this study was to examine the rate of autophagy in JIA T cells and to investigate the effect of inhibition of autophagy on the inflammatory phenotype of JIA T cells., Methods: Autophagy-related gene expression was analysed in CD4+ T cells from the SF of JIA patients and healthy controls using RNA sequencing. Autophagy was measured by flow cytometry and western blot. The effect of inhibition of autophagy, using HCQ, on the cellular activation status was analysed using flow cytometry and multiplex immunoassay., Results: Autophagy was increased in T cells derived from the site of inflammation compared with cells from the peripheral blood of patients and healthy controls. This increase in autophagy was not induced by JIA SF, but is more likely to be the result of increased cellular activation. Inhibition of autophagy reduced proliferation, cytokine production and activation marker expression of JIA SF-derived CD4+ T cells., Conclusion: These data indicate that autophagy is increased in JIA SF-derived T cells and that targeting autophagy could be a promising therapeutic strategy to restore the disrupted T-cell homeostasis in JIA., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Society for Rheumatology. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com)

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is rare in children, and evidence-based guidelines are sparse. Consequently, management is mostly based on observational studies and physician's experience, and treatment regimens differ widely. The Single Hub and Access point for paediatric Rheumatology in Europe (SHARE) initiative was launched to develop diagnostic and management regimens for children and young adults with rheumatic diseases. Here, we developed evidence-based recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of paediatric APS. Evidence-based recommendations were developed using the European League Against Rheumatism standard operating procedure. Following a detailed systematic review of the literature, a committee of paediatric rheumatologists and representation of paediatric haematology with expertise in paediatric APS developed recommendations. The literature review yielded 1473 articles, of which 15 were valid and relevant. In total, four recommendations for diagnosis and eight for treatment of paediatric APS (including paediatric Catastrophic Antiphospholipid Syndrome) were accepted. Additionally, two recommendations for children born to mothers with APS were accepted. It was agreed that new classification criteria for paediatric APS are necessary, and APS in association with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus should be identified by performing antiphospholipid antibody screening. Treatment recommendations included prevention of thrombotic events, and treatment recommendations for venous and/or arterial thrombotic events. Notably, due to the paucity of studies on paediatric APS, level of evidence and strength of the recommendations is relatively low. The SHARE initiative provides international, evidence-based recommendations for diagnosis and treatment for paediatric APS, facilitating improvement and uniformity of care., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Background: The Dutch law states that a physician may perform euthanasia according to a written advance euthanasia directive (AED) when a patient is incompetent as long as all legal criteria of due care are met. This may also hold for patients with advanced dementia. We investigated the differing opinions of physicians and members of the general public on the acceptability of euthanasia in patients with advanced dementia., Methods: In this qualitative study, 16 medical specialists, 19 general practitioners, 16 elderly physicians and 16 members of the general public were interviewed and asked for their opinions about a vignette on euthanasia based on an AED in a patient with advanced dementia., Results: Members of the general public perceived advanced dementia as a debilitating and degrading disease. Physicians emphasized the need for direct communication with the patient when making decisions about euthanasia. Respondent from both groups acknowledged difficulties in the assessment of patients' autonomous wishes and the unbearableness of their suffering., Conclusion: Legally, an AED may replace direct communication with patients about their request for euthanasia. In practice, physicians are reluctant to forego adequate verbal communication with the patient because they wish to verify the voluntariness of patients' request and the unbearableness of suffering. For this reason, the applicability of AEDs in advanced dementia seems limited.