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Lettuce, spinach and chicory are generally considered the main leafy vegetables, while a fourth group denoted by ‘minor leafy vegetables’ includes, amongst others, rocket salad, lamb’s lettuce, asparagus, artichoke and rhubarb. Except in the case of lettuce, central crop databases of leafy vegetables were lacking until recently. Here we report on the update of the international Lactuca database and the development of three new central crop databases for each of the other leafy vegetable crop groups. Requests for passport data of accessions available to the user community were addressed to all known European collection holders and to the main collection holders located outside Europe. Altogether, passport data of 17,530 accessions from a total of 129 collections were collected. The four separate databases were made available on line via a common entry page accessible at http://documents.plant.wur.nl/cgn/pgr/LVintro/. Based on a literature study, an analysis of the gene pool structure of the crops was performed and an inventory was made of the distribution areas of the species involved. The results of these surveys were related to the contents of the newly established databases in order to identify the main collection gaps. Priorities are presented for future germplasm acquisition aimed at improving the coverage of the crop gene pools in ex situ collections.

Cultivated lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is an important leafy vegetable worldwide. However, the phylogenetic relationships between domesticated lettuce and its wild relatives are still not clear. In this thesis, I focus on the phylogenetic relationships within Lactuca L., including an analysis of the wild Lactuca species that are endemic to Africa for the first time. The genetic variation of responses to salinity in a recombinant inbred line population, derived from a cross between the lettuce crop (L. sativa ‘Salinas’) and wild species (L. serriola), was investigated and the candidate gene in the identified QTL regions was further studied. In Chapter 1, I introduce and discuss topics related to genetic diversity and evolution in Lactuca, including an overview of lettuce cultivars and uses, its hypothesized domestication history, the taxonomic position of Lactuca, current status of molecular breeding in lettuce and mechanisms of salinity tolerance in plants, especially the High-affinity K+ Transporter (HKT) gene family. In Chapter 2, the most extensive molecular phylogenetic analysis of Lactuca was constructed based on two chloroplast genes (ndhF and trnL-F), including endemic African species for the first time. This taxon sampling covers nearly 40% of the total Lactuca species endemic to Africa and 34% of all Lactuca species. DNA sequences from all the subfamilies of Asteraceae in Genbank and those generated from Lactuca herbarium samples were used to elucidate the monophyly of Lactuca and the affiliation of Lactuca within Asteracaeae. Based on the subfamily tree, 33 ndhF sequences from 30 species and 79 trnL-F sequences from 48 species were selected to infer phylogenetic relationships within Lactuca using Randomized Axelerated Maximum Likelihood (RAxML) and Bayesian Inference (BI) analyses. In addition, biogeographical, chromosomal and morphological character states were analysed based on the Bayesian tree topology. The results showed that Lactuca contains two distinct phylogenetic clades - the crop clade and the Pterocypsela clade. Other North American, Asian and widespread species either form smaller clades or mix with the Melanoseris species in an unresolved polytomy. The newly sampled African endemic species probably should be excluded from Lactuca and treated as a new genus. In Chapter 3, twenty-seven wild Lactuca species and four outgroup species were sequenced using next generation sequencing (NGS) technology. The sampling covers 36% of total Lactuca species and all the important geographical groups in the genus. Thirty chloroplast genomes, including one complete (partial) large single copy region (LSC), one small single copy region (SSC), one inverted repeat (IR) region, and twenty-nine nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences (containing the internal transcribed spacer region ) were successfully assembled and analysed. A methodology paper for which I am co-author, but is not included in this thesis, of the sequencing pipeline was published: ‘Herbarium genomics: plastome sequence assembly from a range of herbarium specimens using an Iterative Organelle Genome Assembly (IOGA) pipeline’. These NGS data helped resolve deeper nodes in the phylogeny within Lactuca and resolved the polytomy from Chapter 2. The results showed that there are at least four main groups within Lactuca: the crop group, the Pterocypsela group, the North American group and the group containing widely-distributed species. I also confirmed that the endemic African species should be removed and treated as a new genus. In Chapter 4, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) related to salt-induced changes in Root System Architecture (RSA) and ion accumulation were determined using a recombinant inbred line population derived from a cross between cultivated lettuce and wild lettuce. I measured the components of RSA by replicated lettuce seedlings grown on vertical agar plates with different NaCl concentrations in a controlled growth chamber environment. I also quantified the concentration of sodium and potassium in replicates of greenhouse-grown plants watered with 100 mM NaCl. The results identified a total of fourteen QTLs using multi-trait linkage analysis, including three major QTLs associated with general root development (qRC9.1), root growth in salt stress condition (qRS2.1), and ion accumulation (qLS7.2). In Chapter 5, one of the identified QTL regions (qLS7.2) reported in Chapter 4 was found to contain a homolog of the HKT1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. I did a phylogenetic analysis of Lactuca HKT1-like protein sequences with other published HKT protein sequences and determined transmembrane and pore segments of lettuce HKT1;1 alleles, according to the model proposed for AtHKT1;1. Gene expression pattern and level of LsaHKT1;1 (L. sativa ‘Salinas’) and LseHKT1;1 (L. serriola) in root and shoot were investigated in plants growing hydroponically over a time-course. The measurements of Na+ and K+ contents were sampled at the same time as the samples used for gene expression test. In addition, I examined the 5’ promoter regions of the two genotypes. The results showed low expression levels of both HKT1;1 alleles in Lactuca root and relatively higher expression in shoot, probably due to the negative cis-regulatory elements of HKT1 alleles found in Lactuca promoter regions. Significant allelic differences were found in HKT1;1 expression in early stage (0-24 hours) shoots in and in late stage (2-6 days) roots. shoot HKT1;1 expression/root HKT1;1 expression was generally consistent with the ratios of Na+/K+ balance in the relevant tissues (shoot Na+/K+ divided by root Na+/K+). In Chapter 6, I summarize and discuss the results from previous chapters briefly. The implications of Chapter 2 and 3 for Lactuca phylogenetics are discussed, including some key characters for the diagnosis of species within Lactuca, the use of herbarium DNA for NGS technology, and perspectives into Lactuca phylogeny. Future perspectives of genome-wide association mapping for lettuce breeding were also discussed. Lastly, I propose to integrate phylogenetic approaches into investigations of allelic differences in lettuce, not just associated with salinity stress but also with other stressed and beneficial characters, both within and between species.

Cultivated lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is an important leafy vegetable worldwide. However, the phylogenetic relationships between domesticated lettuce and its wild relatives are still not clear. In this thesis, I focus on the phylogenetic relationships within Lactuca L., including an analysis of the wild Lactuca species that are endemic to Africa for the first time. The genetic variation of responses to salinity in a recombinant inbred line population, derived from a cross between the lettuce crop (L. sativa ‘Salinas’) and wild species (L. serriola), was investigated and the candidate gene in the identified QTL regions was further studied. In Chapter 1, I introduce and discuss topics related to genetic diversity and evolution in Lactuca, including an overview of lettuce cultivars and uses, its hypothesized domestication history, the taxonomic position of Lactuca, current status of molecular breeding in lettuce and mechanisms of salinity tolerance in plants, especially the High-affinity K+ Transporter (HKT) gene family. In Chapter 2, the most extensive molecular phylogenetic analysis of Lactuca was constructed based on two chloroplast genes (ndhF and trnL-F), including endemic African species for the first time. This taxon sampling covers nearly 40% of the total Lactuca species endemic to Africa and 34% of all Lactuca species. DNA sequences from all the subfamilies of Asteraceae in Genbank and those generated from Lactuca herbarium samples were used to elucidate the monophyly of Lactuca and the affiliation of Lactuca within Asteracaeae. Based on the subfamily tree, 33 ndhF sequences from 30 species and 79 trnL-F sequences from 48 species were selected to infer phylogenetic relationships within Lactuca using Randomized Axelerated Maximum Likelihood (RAxML) and Bayesian Inference (BI) analyses. In addition, biogeographical, chromosomal and morphological character states were analysed based on the Bayesian tree topology. The results showed that Lactuca contains two distinct phylogenetic clades - the crop clade and the Pterocypsela clade. Other North American, Asian and widespread species either form smaller clades or mix with the Melanoseris species in an unresolved polytomy. The newly sampled African endemic species probably should be excluded from Lactuca and treated as a new genus. In Chapter 3, twenty-seven wild Lactuca species and four outgroup species were sequenced using next generation sequencing (NGS) technology. The sampling covers 36% of total Lactuca species and all the important geographical groups in the genus. Thirty chloroplast genomes, including one complete (partial) large single copy region (LSC), one small single copy region (SSC), one inverted repeat (IR) region, and twenty-nine nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences (containing the internal transcribed spacer region ) were successfully assembled and analysed. A methodology paper for which I am co-author, but is not included in this thesis, of the sequencing pipeline was published: ‘Herbarium genomics: plastome sequence assembly from a range of herbarium specimens using an Iterative Organelle Genome Assembly (IOGA) pipeline’. These NGS data helped resolve deeper nodes in the phylogeny within Lactuca and resolved the polytomy from Chapter 2. The results showed that there are at least four main groups within Lactuca: the crop group, the Pterocypsela group, the North American group and the group containing widely-distributed species. I also confirmed that the endemic African species should be removed and treated as a new genus. In Chapter 4, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) related to salt-induced changes in Root System Architecture (RSA) and ion accumulation were determined using a recombinant inbred line population derived from a cross between cultivated lettuce and wild lettuce. I measured the components of RSA by replicated lettuce seedlings grown on vertical agar plates with different NaCl concentrations in a controlled growth chamber environment. I also quantified the concentration of sodium and potassium in replicates of greenhouse-grown plants watered with 100 mM NaCl. The results identified a total of fourteen QTLs using multi-trait linkage analysis, including three major QTLs associated with general root development (qRC9.1), root growth in salt stress condition (qRS2.1), and ion accumulation (qLS7.2). In Chapter 5, one of the identified QTL regions (qLS7.2) reported in Chapter 4 was found to contain a homolog of the HKT1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. I did a phylogenetic analysis of Lactuca HKT1-like protein sequences with other published HKT protein sequences and determined transmembrane and pore segments of lettuce HKT1;1 alleles, according to the model proposed for AtHKT1;1. Gene expression pattern and level of LsaHKT1;1 (L. sativa ‘Salinas’) and LseHKT1;1 (L. serriola) in root and shoot were investigated in plants growing hydroponically over a time-course. The measurements of Na+ and K+ contents were sampled at the same time as the samples used for gene expression test. In addition, I examined the 5’ promoter regions of the two genotypes. The results showed low expression levels of both HKT1;1 alleles in Lactuca root and relatively higher expression in shoot, probably due to the negative cis-regulatory elements of HKT1 alleles found in Lactuca promoter regions. Significant allelic differences were found in HKT1;1 expression in early stage (0-24 hours) shoots in and in late stage (2-6 days) roots. shoot HKT1;1 expression/root HKT1;1 expression was generally consistent with the ratios of Na+/K+ balance in the relevant tissues (shoot Na+/K+ divided by root Na+/K+). In Chapter 6, I summarize and discuss the results from previous chapters briefly. The implications of Chapter 2 and 3 for Lactuca phylogenetics are discussed, including some key characters for the diagnosis of species within Lactuca, the use of herbarium DNA for NGS technology, and perspectives into Lactuca phylogeny. Future perspectives of genome-wide association mapping for lettuce breeding were also discussed. Lastly, I propose to integrate phylogenetic approaches into investigations of allelic differences in lettuce, not just associated with salinity stress but also with other stressed and beneficial characters, both within and between species.

Summary Climate change is generally recognized as a major threat to humans and the environment. With respect to food production, climate change does not only affect crop production or food security, but possibly also effects on food safety by affecting the prevalence and levels of bacteria, fungi or other pests and pesticides. Fresh-cut or ready-to-eat leafy vegetables (e.g. lettuce and spinach) are increasingly consumed because they are promoted as part of a healthy diet. Such leafy green vegetables (LGVs) are identified as the fresh produce commodity group of highest concern from a microbiological safety perspective, because they are often grown in the open field and therefore vulnerable to contamination and contact with (faeces of) wildlife. Moreover, they are grown and consumed in large volumes and often consumed raw. Bacteria, such as Salmonella spp. and pathogenic Escherichia coli strains are the main pathogens causing foodborne disease through LGVs. A major knowledge gap is understanding how climate change may directly or indirectly affect the contamination of LGVs. This primarily relates to the current lack of methods and tools to link climate data and climate change scenarios to food safety. My thesis aims to quantify the impacts of climate change on microbial safety of pre-harvested LGVs. To achieve this, I reviewed the literature and synthesised major impacts of climate change on contamination sources and pathways of foodborne pathogens (focussing on Escherichia coli O157 and Salmonella spp.) on pre-harvested LGVs (Chapter 2). Subsequently, I developed a statistical model that identifies the weather and management variables that are associated with the LGVs contamination with generic E. coli using regression analysis (Chapter 3). To apply suitable climate data to this statistical model to assess future impacts, I have prepared a tool to downscale coarse climate and climate change data for local food safety scenario analysis (Chapter 4). Finally, I applied the downscaled data to the statistical model and used multi-criteria scenario analysis to explore future food safety (Chapter 5). E.coli is used as a hygienic indicator in this thesis to study microbial safety of LGVs. Its presence is indicative for an increased pathogen presence probability. E. coli and many foodborne bacteria share the same contamination pathways and climate change is expected to similarly impact on both bacteria. Hygienic status is therefore used in my thesis as a proxy for the microbial safety of LGVs. The major result of the literature review in Chapter 2 is that the impact of climate change on LGV contamination depends on the resulting local balance of the positive and negative impacts. The review shows that the interactions between climate change and contamination are real but poorly understood. Therefore, integrative quantitative modelling approaches with scenario analyses and additional laboratory experiments are needed. With this knowledge background, mixed effect logistic regression and linear regression models were developed to identify the climate and management variables that are associated with the presence and concentration of E. coli on LGVs (Chapter 3). These models used E. coli data of 562 lettuce and spinach samples taken between 2011 and 2013 from 23 open-field farms from Belgium, Brazil, Egypt, Norway and Spain. Weather and agriculture management practices together had a systematic influence on E.coli presence and concentration. Temperature explained most of the observed variation on E. coli prevalence and concentration on LGVs. Minimum temperature of the sampling day (odds ratio [OR] 1.47), region and application of inorganic fertilizer explained a significant amount of variation in E. coli prevalence. Maximum temperature on three days before sampling and region best explained the variation in E. coli concentration (R2= 0.75). Region is a variable masking many management variables including use of rain water, surface water, manure, inorganic fertilizer and spray irrigation. Climate variables and E. coli presence and concentration are positively related. The results indicate that climate change will have an impact on microbiological safety of LGVs. These impacts can be directly through an increasing temperature, but also indirectly through changes in irrigation water type, fertilizer type and irrigation method. Therefore, climate change and farm management should be considered more systematically in an integrated way in future studies on fresh produce safety. To prepare climate data for local food safety scenario analysis, a climate data downscaling tool was presented and demonstrated (Chapter 4). Coarse gridded data from two general circulation models, HadGEM2-ES and CCSM4, were selected and downscaled using the ‘Delta method’ with quantile-quantile correction for the Belgium meteorological station in Ukkel. Observational daily temperature and precipitation data from 1981 to 2000 were used as a reference period for this downscaling. Data were provided for four future representative concentration pathways (RCPs) for the periods 2031–2050 and 2081–2100. These RCPs are radiative forcing scenarios for which future climate conditions are projected. The climate projections for these RCPs show that both temperature and precipitation will increase towards the end of the century in Ukkel. The climate change data were subsequently used with Ratkowsky's bacterial growth model to illustrate how projected climate data can be used for projecting bacterial growth in the future. In this example, the future growth rate of Lactobacillus plantarum and the number of days that the bacteria are able to grow are both projected to increase in Ukkel. This example illustrates that this downscaling method can be applied to assess future food safety. This downscaling tool is relatively straightforward compared to other more complex downscaling tools, so the food safety researchers can easily understand and apply it to their impact studies. With the statistical model (Chapter 3) and downscaled climate data (Chapter 4), a multi-criteria scenario analysis tool was developed to explore future food safety using pre-harvest spinach in Spain as an example (Chapter 5). The future E. coli concentrations on spinach were projected to change in RCP 8.5 and RCP 2.6 by the end of the century in Spain. The E. coli concentration was projected to increase between 0.2 log10 CFU/g and 0.3 log10 CFU/g (depending on the climate scenarios and management options applied) due to higher temperature by the end of the century compared to the concentrations by the end of the last century. This comparison assumed no changes in agricultural management practices. This tool can be used to help selecting the best management practices considering climate change and other indicators. The pioneering research presented in my thesis brought new methods and tools, and another mind set to food safety research. The climate-change data downscaling tool provides detailed temporal and spatial climate data for climate scenario analysis in food safety assessment studies. The multi-criteria scenario analysis tool provides a platform to study changes in weather or climate, and management impacts on future food safety. This tool also allows for inclusion of different stakeholders’ perspectives or interests and supports their decision making processes. Moreover, the thesis presents a statistical model that can be used to study the relationship between climate and E. coli contamination. My thesis quantified the impacts of climate change on microbial safety of pre-harvested LGVs contaminated with generic E. coli for the first time. With one degree increase in minimum temperature of the sampling day, the odds of having E. coli presence on LGVs increase by a factor of 1.5. The mean E. coli concentrations are also expected to increase. Climate change should not be ignored in food safety management and research.

Summary Climate change is generally recognized as a major threat to humans and the environment. With respect to food production, climate change does not only affect crop production or food security, but possibly also effects on food safety by affecting the prevalence and levels of bacteria, fungi or other pests and pesticides. Fresh-cut or ready-to-eat leafy vegetables (e.g. lettuce and spinach) are increasingly consumed because they are promoted as part of a healthy diet. Such leafy green vegetables (LGVs) are identified as the fresh produce commodity group of highest concern from a microbiological safety perspective, because they are often grown in the open field and therefore vulnerable to contamination and contact with (faeces of) wildlife. Moreover, they are grown and consumed in large volumes and often consumed raw. Bacteria, such as Salmonella spp. and pathogenic Escherichia coli strains are the main pathogens causing foodborne disease through LGVs. A major knowledge gap is understanding how climate change may directly or indirectly affect the contamination of LGVs. This primarily relates to the current lack of methods and tools to link climate data and climate change scenarios to food safety. My thesis aims to quantify the impacts of climate change on microbial safety of pre-harvested LGVs. To achieve this, I reviewed the literature and synthesised major impacts of climate change on contamination sources and pathways of foodborne pathogens (focussing on Escherichia coli O157 and Salmonella spp.) on pre-harvested LGVs (Chapter 2). Subsequently, I developed a statistical model that identifies the weather and management variables that are associated with the LGVs contamination with generic E. coli using regression analysis (Chapter 3). To apply suitable climate data to this statistical model to assess future impacts, I have prepared a tool to downscale coarse climate and climate change data for local food safety scenario analysis (Chapter 4). Finally, I applied the downscaled data to the statistical model and used multi-criteria scenario analysis to explore future food safety (Chapter 5). E.coli is used as a hygienic indicator in this thesis to study microbial safety of LGVs. Its presence is indicative for an increased pathogen presence probability. E. coli and many foodborne bacteria share the same contamination pathways and climate change is expected to similarly impact on both bacteria. Hygienic status is therefore used in my thesis as a proxy for the microbial safety of LGVs. The major result of the literature review in Chapter 2 is that the impact of climate change on LGV contamination depends on the resulting local balance of the positive and negative impacts. The review shows that the interactions between climate change and contamination are real but poorly understood. Therefore, integrative quantitative modelling approaches with scenario analyses and additional laboratory experiments are needed. With this knowledge background, mixed effect logistic regression and linear regression models were developed to identify the climate and management variables that are associated with the presence and concentration of E. coli on LGVs (Chapter 3). These models used E. coli data of 562 lettuce and spinach samples taken between 2011 and 2013 from 23 open-field farms from Belgium, Brazil, Egypt, Norway and Spain. Weather and agriculture management practices together had a systematic influence on E.coli presence and concentration. Temperature explained most of the observed variation on E. coli prevalence and concentration on LGVs. Minimum temperature of the sampling day (odds ratio [OR] 1.47), region and application of inorganic fertilizer explained a significant amount of variation in E. coli prevalence. Maximum temperature on three days before sampling and region best explained the variation in E. coli concentration (R2= 0.75). Region is a variable masking many management variables including use of rain water, surface water, manure, inorganic fertilizer and spray irrigation. Climate variables and E. coli presence and concentration are positively related. The results indicate that climate change will have an impact on microbiological safety of LGVs. These impacts can be directly through an increasing temperature, but also indirectly through changes in irrigation water type, fertilizer type and irrigation method. Therefore, climate change and farm management should be considered more systematically in an integrated way in future studies on fresh produce safety. To prepare climate data for local food safety scenario analysis, a climate data downscaling tool was presented and demonstrated (Chapter 4). Coarse gridded data from two general circulation models, HadGEM2-ES and CCSM4, were selected and downscaled using the ‘Delta method’ with quantile-quantile correction for the Belgium meteorological station in Ukkel. Observational daily temperature and precipitation data from 1981 to 2000 were used as a reference period for this downscaling. Data were provided for four future representative concentration pathways (RCPs) for the periods 2031–2050 and 2081–2100. These RCPs are radiative forcing scenarios for which future climate conditions are projected. The climate projections for these RCPs show that both temperature and precipitation will increase towards the end of the century in Ukkel. The climate change data were subsequently used with Ratkowsky's bacterial growth model to illustrate how projected climate data can be used for projecting bacterial growth in the future. In this example, the future growth rate of Lactobacillus plantarum and the number of days that the bacteria are able to grow are both projected to increase in Ukkel. This example illustrates that this downscaling method can be applied to assess future food safety. This downscaling tool is relatively straightforward compared to other more complex downscaling tools, so the food safety researchers can easily understand and apply it to their impact studies. With the statistical model (Chapter 3) and downscaled climate data (Chapter 4), a multi-criteria scenario analysis tool was developed to explore future food safety using pre-harvest spinach in Spain as an example (Chapter 5). The future E. coli concentrations on spinach were projected to change in RCP 8.5 and RCP 2.6 by the end of the century in Spain. The E. coli concentration was projected to increase between 0.2 log10 CFU/g and 0.3 log10 CFU/g (depending on the climate scenarios and management options applied) due to higher temperature by the end of the century compared to the concentrations by the end of the last century. This comparison assumed no changes in agricultural management practices. This tool can be used to help selecting the best management practices considering climate change and other indicators. The pioneering research presented in my thesis brought new methods and tools, and another mind set to food safety research. The climate-change data downscaling tool provides detailed temporal and spatial climate data for climate scenario analysis in food safety assessment studies. The multi-criteria scenario analysis tool provides a platform to study changes in weather or climate, and management impacts on future food safety. This tool also allows for inclusion of different stakeholders’ perspectives or interests and supports their decision making processes. Moreover, the thesis presents a statistical model that can be used to study the relationship between climate and E. coli contamination. My thesis quantified the impacts of climate change on microbial safety of pre-harvested LGVs contaminated with generic E. coli for the first time. With one degree increase in minimum temperature of the sampling day, the odds of having E. coli presence on LGVs increase by a factor of 1.5. The mean E. coli concentrations are also expected to increase. Climate change should not be ignored in food safety management and research.

Title: Glucosinolates during preparation of Brassica vegetables in Indonesia Dutch translation of title: Effecten van Indonesische bereidingsmethoden op gezondheidsbevorderende stoffen in groenten Title/description for non-professionals: Effects of Indonesian preparation methods on health promoting compounds in vegetables Summary: Stir-frying, one of the most popular method to prepare Brassica vegetables in Indonesia, can retain the content of the alleged health promoting glucosinolates. Meanwhile, long-term steaming and fermentation considerably reduce the glucosinolate content. By analysing the mechanisms underlying glucosinolate changes during preparation, alternative procedures or conditions to enhance the retention of glucosinolates were proposed. For fermentation, prior inactivation of myrosinase enzyme resulted in a higher retention of glucosinolate. For steaming, a reduction of the steaming time was shown beneficial to have a higher glucosinolate content. A mathematical modelling approach was successfully applied to describe the effects of variation in the conditions and processes on the glucosinolate content of products and to optimise them in order to get a more optimal glucosinolate content in the prepared products. Besides improvement of the content of vegetable products, the present study also yields important information to make a more accurate estimation of the dietary intake of glucosinolates in prepared dishes. Such estimation is important for establishing the relation between intake of phytochemicals and health effects like reducing the risk of certain diseases.

Title: Glucosinolates during preparation of Brassica vegetables in Indonesia Dutch translation of title: Effecten van Indonesische bereidingsmethoden op gezondheidsbevorderende stoffen in groenten Title/description for non-professionals: Effects of Indonesian preparation methods on health promoting compounds in vegetables Summary: Stir-frying, one of the most popular method to prepare Brassica vegetables in Indonesia, can retain the content of the alleged health promoting glucosinolates. Meanwhile, long-term steaming and fermentation considerably reduce the glucosinolate content. By analysing the mechanisms underlying glucosinolate changes during preparation, alternative procedures or conditions to enhance the retention of glucosinolates were proposed. For fermentation, prior inactivation of myrosinase enzyme resulted in a higher retention of glucosinolate. For steaming, a reduction of the steaming time was shown beneficial to have a higher glucosinolate content. A mathematical modelling approach was successfully applied to describe the effects of variation in the conditions and processes on the glucosinolate content of products and to optimise them in order to get a more optimal glucosinolate content in the prepared products. Besides improvement of the content of vegetable products, the present study also yields important information to make a more accurate estimation of the dietary intake of glucosinolates in prepared dishes. Such estimation is important for establishing the relation between intake of phytochemicals and health effects like reducing the risk of certain diseases.

Using historical seed catalogues in combination with molecular fingerprinting data, diversity trends of lettuce, representing an important vegetable with active breeding programmes, were studied. Seed catalogues originating from France and the Netherlands from five different decades, the earliest dating from the 1840s, were checked for the occurence of lettuce cultivars. A total of 225 catalogues, with 7,311 records of lettuce, representing 878 different cultivars were found. The number of unique cultivars on offer by French and Dutch companies showed a small continuous increase until the 1960s, after which the number of cultivars on offer more than doubled to a total of 534 in the 1990s. Only a relatively small overlap between France and the Netherlands in the range of cultivars offered was observed. The 1960s appeared to be a period with many changes: the lowest genetic diversity in lettuce cultivars was found for this decade, whereas after the 1960s the number of companies supplying lettuce seeds reduced dramatically. The percentage of companies in a decade offering an identical cultivar decreased over time, and in the 1990s almost all cultivars were unique to only a single company. The possible relations of the observed trends with the developments in plant variety protection and in the plant breeding industry are discussed.

Cruciferous vegetables like cabbages, broccoli, mustard and cress, have been reported to be beneficial for human health. They contain glucosinolates, which are hydrolysed into isothiocyanates that have shown anticarcinogenic properties in animal experiments. To study the bioavailability, kinetics and effects of isothiocyanates from cruciferous vegetables, biomarkers of exposure and for selected beneficial effects were developed and validated. As a biomarker for intake and bioavailability, isothiocyanate mercapturic acids were chemically synthesised as reference compounds and a method for their quantification in urine was developed. The validity of this biomarker was proven in a study in which three volunteers consumed 19 different raw and cooked vegetables and condiments. Urinary excretion levels of isothiocyanate mercapturic acids were higher after the consumption of raw vegetables and condiments (bioavailability 60%, range 8.2-113%) compared to cooked vegetables (10%, range 1.8-43%). In a second study, in which eight smoking men consumed cooked and raw broccoli, higher levels of sulforaphane were found when broccoli was eaten raw (bioavailability 37%) versus cooked (3.4%). Also as a biomarker for kinetics, sulforaphane conjugates were determined in blood samples also collected in the second study. The area under the blood-concentration curve was higher when broccoli was eaten raw (0.50 µM•h, dose of 9.9 µmol sulforaphane) versus cooked (0.29 µM•h, dose of 61 µmol glucoraphanin). It is concluded that the bioavailability of isothiocyanates from glucosinolates is higher from raw than from cooked vegetables. The induction of phase 2 metabolism enzymes via an electrophile responsive element (EpRE), that is present in the promotor region of the genes coding for these enzymes, was used as a biomarker for a beneficial health effect. Isothiocyanates containing a methyl-sulfur side chain (like sulforaphane, EC50 value 1.2 µM) are more potent inducers, in this in vitro assay, than aliphatic and aromatic isothiocyanates (e.g. allyl isothiocyanate, EC50 value 6.5 µM). The estimated concentrations of individual isothiocyanates in the body after consumption of cruciferous vegetables may amount to 0.04-4 µM. Since cruciferous vegetables contain several isothiocyanates which act synergistically, concentrations might thus reach these EC50 values for EpRE induction, and represent biologically active concentrations. In conclusion, the biomarkers developed and validated in the present thesis show that higher and physiologically relevant amounts of isothiocyanates are absorbed after the consumption of raw cruciferous vegetables, compared to cooked vegetables. Broccoli (cress) is favorite since it contains high amounts of sulforaphane, which is, based on the results of the present studies, the most promising isothiocyanate because it shows the lowest EC50 for EpRE induction.

Cruciferous vegetables like cabbages, broccoli, mustard and cress, have been reported to be beneficial for human health. They contain glucosinolates, which are hydrolysed into isothiocyanates that have shown anticarcinogenic properties in animal experiments. To study the bioavailability, kinetics and effects of isothiocyanates from cruciferous vegetables, biomarkers of exposure and for selected beneficial effects were developed and validated. As a biomarker for intake and bioavailability, isothiocyanate mercapturic acids were chemically synthesised as reference compounds and a method for their quantification in urine was developed. The validity of this biomarker was proven in a study in which three volunteers consumed 19 different raw and cooked vegetables and condiments. Urinary excretion levels of isothiocyanate mercapturic acids were higher after the consumption of raw vegetables and condiments (bioavailability 60%, range 8.2-113%) compared to cooked vegetables (10%, range 1.8-43%). In a second study, in which eight smoking men consumed cooked and raw broccoli, higher levels of sulforaphane were found when broccoli was eaten raw (bioavailability 37%) versus cooked (3.4%). Also as a biomarker for kinetics, sulforaphane conjugates were determined in blood samples also collected in the second study. The area under the blood-concentration curve was higher when broccoli was eaten raw (0.50 µM•h, dose of 9.9 µmol sulforaphane) versus cooked (0.29 µM•h, dose of 61 µmol glucoraphanin). It is concluded that the bioavailability of isothiocyanates from glucosinolates is higher from raw than from cooked vegetables. The induction of phase 2 metabolism enzymes via an electrophile responsive element (EpRE), that is present in the promotor region of the genes coding for these enzymes, was used as a biomarker for a beneficial health effect. Isothiocyanates containing a methyl-sulfur side chain (like sulforaphane, EC50 value 1.2 µM) are more potent inducers, in this in vitro assay, than aliphatic and aromatic isothiocyanates (e.g. allyl isothiocyanate, EC50 value 6.5 µM). The estimated concentrations of individual isothiocyanates in the body after consumption of cruciferous vegetables may amount to 0.04-4 µM. Since cruciferous vegetables contain several isothiocyanates which act synergistically, concentrations might thus reach these EC50 values for EpRE induction, and represent biologically active concentrations. In conclusion, the biomarkers developed and validated in the present thesis show that higher and physiologically relevant amounts of isothiocyanates are absorbed after the consumption of raw cruciferous vegetables, compared to cooked vegetables. Broccoli (cress) is favorite since it contains high amounts of sulforaphane, which is, based on the results of the present studies, the most promising isothiocyanate because it shows the lowest EC50 for EpRE induction.

One of the important environmental determinants of the risk of colon cancer is the composition of the diet. Regular consumption of high amounts of red meat increases colon cancer risk. In contrast, consumption of green vegetables decreases the risk of colon cancer. This thesis provides a molecular mechanism of how these two dietary components might modulate colon cancer risk.

One of the important environmental determinants of the risk of colon cancer is the composition of the diet. Regular consumption of high amounts of red meat increases colon cancer risk. In contrast, consumption of green vegetables decreases the risk of colon cancer. This thesis provides a molecular mechanism of how these two dietary components might modulate colon cancer risk.