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This article explores community-based rock music education as a site for strengthening social cohesion in a context of postwar, interethnic divisions. Focusing on small and incremental changes, it examines the practices of Music Connects, a project in the Western Balkans, and its goals of revitalizing rock culture in support of a more inclusive social life and greater freedom of movement in the region. The article explores the ways that an organizational and participant focus on aesthetic practices and artistic goals can still contribute to social goals. It highlights three key tasks connected to rock music education and revitalization, captured in the novel conceptual constructs of rehearsal space, the incubator, and the expansion of normal. Drawing upon qualitative data gathered in 2019 and 2021 from 40 participants, the article tells a story of small social changes through music-making that added up to significant developments in the region, musically and socially.

Data envelopment analysis (DEA), which is frequently used in efficiency analysis, has also been applied to the measurement of entrepreneurial efficiency for the attainment of desired values of macroeconomic indicators (such as the objectives of sustainable economic growth). For this application, DEA takes into account the economic, environmental, and social impact of entrepreneurship as the three dimensions of sustainability. This paper aimed to investigate the potential for a scalable (in diversity, equity, and inclusion dimensions) DEA application in sustainable entrepreneurship performance (SEP) assessment through three channels (assessing SEP without ESG activities; ESG→SEP; ESG (DEI)→SEP) and present an empirical study related to economic growth assessment and its environmental, social, and governance (ESG), and diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) determinants across selected Western Balkans (WB) and European Union (EU) companies, based on the use of the proposed scalable DEA. It highlights how crucial a scalable nonparametric approach to macroeconomic efficiency analysis is and provides a more comprehensive perspective to the researchers on this issue. This study used a non-oriented DEA model with variable return-to-scale in a group of 60 WB and 60 EU companies, all of which adopted ICT/Blockchain (BC) technologies (the 11 ESG metrics). The annual corporate data was collected for seven years from 2017 until 2023. We projected the selected data to three country particularities (mass acceptance, adoption, and implementation of ICT/BC; mass labor force return from overseas; and ethnic, cultural, and religious particularities) and performed statistical analysis. Our findings estimate the influence of these three particularities on economic growth potential. In all countries’ cases, we found a statistically sound (significant, positive) correlation between ESG and SEP’s economic growth quality performance. Particularly, when corporate social and DEI initiatives mediate (channel III), SEP’s economic growth gains the best performance (+18%) in countries with ethnic, cultural, and religious particularities (BiH, NM), a +17% in countries enjoying massive labor force return from overseas (AL) and performs well in quality (particularly in the innovation and integrity) SEP performance success dimensions (all WB and EU countries). The proposed scalable DEA shows clearly, by performing an empirical analysis, which modern business (adopting ICT/BC) is the most effective in achieving sustainability projected to country particularities, helping corporate management to improve economic growth efficiency.

Digitalization and automation are restructuring the geographical landscape of operations and labor, significantly altering operations in global value chains (GVCs). Digital technologies are expected to boost resilience, enhance transparency, and foster sustainability in GVCs. In this context, this paper looks at how the application of fintech solutions fosters the creation of regional value chains (RVCs), increasing attractiveness and generating new opportunities for enterprises in the Western Balkan region to participate in GVCs To fill the existing gap for granular analysis at the industry level, the paper examines if enterprises in the Western Balkans that apply of fintech solutions in financial management have better opportunities to create RVCs than the ones that resist fintech implementation. Using a benchmarking instrument on fintech solutions implemented on 370 enterprises, this paper tries to identify industries with the highest potential to create RVCs and higher prospects for integration in GVCs. Our findings indicate that fintech solutions and applications can be one of the main driving forces in transforming and upgrading RVCs in Western Balkan countries.

Globalization trends have significantly influenced the role and importance of state power, though certainly not to the extent that one could argue globalization has rendered states obsolete or unnecessary. Many of today’s global challenges, such as terrorism, climate change, the migrant crisis, and others, are impossible to address within national frameworks, necessitating the cooperation of sovereign states as the ‘appropriate measure’ in responding to these and similar global issues. Starting from the fact that the components of state power persist even in an increasingly interactive and globalized world and that the past decades have witnessed attempts to balance state power among the often disproportionate member states of the European Union, this paper posits the hypothesis that the Western Balkan states lack the independent capacity to build institutions modeled after those of EU member states. Consequently, this region serves as a striking example of a neglected area with missed opportunities for clear integration into the EU. Furthermore, the paper analyzes, in light of knowledge on variability and development, identity and diversity, opposition and contradiction, the circumstances that have led to a series of missed opportunities for progress in this volatile region, as well as the internal problems within the Union that affect the Western Balkan countries on their European path.

The Hawala system, an informal and traditional money transfer mechanism, has been a subject of concern for counterterrorism and counterintelligence agencies worldwide due to its potential exploitation for illicit financial activities, including terrorism financing. This paper provides a comprehensive examination of the Hawala system’s presence in the Western Balkans, a region historically characterized by geopolitical complexity and a complex security landscape. Drawing on empirical data and regulatory analysis, this study explores the challenges posed by the Hawala system in the context of counterterrorism and counterintelligence efforts in the Western Balkans. It examines the system’s vulnerabilities, its exploitation for terrorism financing and the difficulties faced by intelligence agencies in monitoring and disrupting Hawala networks. Moreover, the paper assesses the regulatory frameworks implemented by countries in the region and offers practical policy recommendations to enhance counterterrorism and counterintelligence strategies, fostering greater security and stability in the Western Balkans.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has influenced food preparation and consumption habits, as well as food wastage. The pandemic also affected the lives of university students worldwide; their learning and living environments changed, influencing their eating habits. Aim: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic on students' food-related activities in four countries in the Western Balkans: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, North Macedonia, and Montenegro. Methods: The research draws upon an online survey gathered through the SurveyMonkey platform in four Balkan countries—viz. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, North Macedonia, and Montenegro—and used a structured questionnaire. The information was collected during the second wave of COVID-19 in October–November 2020. A total of 1658 valid responses were received. Descriptive statistics and nonparametric tests were used to analyze the survey findings. Results: The research results suggest that the pandemic influenced students' food purchase habits, diets, and food-related behaviors and practices such as food preparation, cooking, and food waste management at the household level. In particular, students have been eating healthier and shopping less frequently during the pandemic. Meanwhile, the pandemic improved their attitude toward food wastage. Conclusion: This study is the first to examine how students in the Balkan region perceive the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their eating habits, laying the groundwork for future studies into the disease's consequences. This and other studies will assist in preparing students and education institutions for future calamities and pandemics. The findings will also help develop evidence-based postpandemic recovery options targeting youth and students in the Western Balkans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contemporary era has witnessed a significant evolution in diplomacy, transitioning from traditional state-led approaches to more open, multilateral methods and channels. This study evaluates the effectiveness and suitability of the new diplomatic disciplines, particularly in the Western Balkans region, which grapples with numerous structural challenges, ethnic and political divisions, and external interference. The influence of traditional state-centric diplomacy in this region necessitates a shift towards a more participatory, multi-stakeholder approach to promoting positive peace and cooperation. This reframing of diplomacy emphasizes the emergence of regionalism and multilateralism through multi-track diplomacy, involving private individuals, non-governmental organizations, societies, and engaged citizens to foster understanding through dialogue, cooperation, and deeper interaction. The analysis highlights the influence of innovative diplomatic channels interlinked and entrenched through a capillary diplomacy framework essential for regional application while exploring the constraints of traditional methods. It advocates for fresh diplomatic strategies and collaborative initiatives in the Western Balkans through a win-win formula and a participatory model based on multi-track diplomacy – repurposed and redesigned to advance the reconciliation process, rapprochement, and raise public awareness through effective communication in line with the EU integration goals and advancements.

Overloaded by the 1990s’ armed conflicts’ “ballast from the past” the Western Balkans states are still struggling to manage their EU Accession agendas, whose Chapter 23 “list of issues” includes, in addition to the standard judiciary, anticorruption and fundamental rights, also the challenge to address war crimes committed in 1990s. Despite visible differences in terms of the extent to which those countries have been affected by the armed conflicts as well as the gravity of their consequences, the European Commission keeps pushing for a strategic approach to the prosecution of war crimes, including enhancing the protection and support for war crime victims and clarifying the fate of persons went missing and/or disappeared in/or in connection to armed conflicts. However, the quality and comprehensiveness of such an approach varies to the great extent among the Western Balkans states, intensifying in the periods of intensive EU accession reform agenda, followed by periods of passivation after achieving some progress on EU part. This speaks itself to what extent EU accession processes can contribute to the transitional justice processes in Western Balkans.

The purpose of this research paper is to determine factors of credit risk expressed in terms of non-performing loans in six countries of the Western Balkans (Kosovo, Albania, North Macedonia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia). The research uses different econometric techniques for the presentation of econometric models, where 4 models are used: OLS, fixed-effects model, random-effects model, and Hausman Taylor IV estimators. The results from the empirical analysis presented show that unemployment and the real interest rate have a positive impact on the growth of non-performing loans where both coefficients are statistically significant at the 1% level, while other variables (financial stability, economic growth, and inflation) show a statistically significant negative impact. These findings are important for the decision-makers of the financial systems of these countries, especially countries that have limited use of monetary policy, making decisions to create greater financial stability to reduce credit risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Being overweight and obese is associated with an elevated risk of developing noncommunicable diseases, which are the leading causes of mortality worldwide. It is a warning that global prevalence of overweight among university students ranges from 20 to 40%, which presents a significant public health problem. To date, there was no research conducted on medical students regarding the prevalence and associated factors of overweight and obesity in the countries of the Western Balkans (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Serbia). The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and potential demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related behavioral factors associated with overweight and obesity of medical students from Western Balkans. A cross-sectional study was conducted, surveying 2452 students from 14 medical faculties from 5 countries in the region. The prevalence of overweight was 12% and obesity was 2.3% among medical students from Western Balkans. Male gender and smoking status are significant positive predictors of overweight and obesity. Daily level of physical activity up to 1 h per day, going to preventive check-ups once a year or as a part of annual dormitory check-ups are associated with lower odds of being overweight and obese. By creating adequate public health educational programs, students can be influenced to acquire proper health-related lifestyle habits, which would lead to reducing the prevalence of overweight and obesity among the student population, as well as risk of developing noncommunicable diseases and improving the overall health of the population.

Abstract Ixodid ticks are distributed across all countries of the Western Balkans, with a high diversity of species. Many of these species serve as vectors of pathogens of veterinary and medical importance. Given the scattered data from Western Balkan countries, we have conducted a comprehensive review of available literature, including some historical data, with the aim to compile information about all recorded tick species and associated zoonotic pathogens in this region. Based on the collected data, the tick fauna of the Western Balkans encompasses 32 tick species belonging to five genera: Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma. A range of pathogens responsible for human diseases has also been documented, including viruses, bacteria and parasites. In this review, we emphasize the necessity for integrated surveillance and reporting, urging authorities to foster research by providing financial support. Additionally, international and interdisciplinary collaborations should be encouraged that include the exchange of expertise, experiences and resources. The present collaborative effort can effectively address gaps in our knowledge of ticks and tick-borne diseases. Graphical Abstract

Cities are becoming more important actors in the international arena because they have competencies that enable them to conduct foreign activities. This phenomenon is the result of far-reaching processes of globalisation and the pluralisation of actors in international relations. This study presents a map of partnerships between six Croatian and two Slovenian cities and their Chinese and American partners, as well as a description of the thematic areas of such cooperation. Moreover, based on the results of our survey, we indicate similarities and differences in the patterns of cooperation between the cities of the Western Balkans and their foreign partners, referring to the multilevel governance theory.

IntroductionThe significance of mental health and its impact on overall well-being is increasingly acknowledged across various sectors, including higher education. However, despite this growing recognition, the stigma associated with mental health issues and related help-seeking, particularly within certain cultural groups and socio-economic contexts, continues to pose a formidable barrier to effective care, especially among university students. Addressing these challenges, this study explores the intricate interplay of factors affecting mental health awareness and stigma, including help-seeking behaviors among Albanian university students in three Western Balkan countries: Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Albania. By dissecting these multi-layered influences, this study aims to develop targeted interventions to enhance mental well-being and dismantle barriers to care in these regions.MethodsThis qualitative study involved 60 Albanian university students from Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Albania, using focus groups to gather data. The discussions were structured around the socio-ecological model, facilitating a comprehensive exploration of the individual, interpersonal, organizational, and societal factors influencing mental health awareness, stigma, and help-seeking behaviors.ResultsFindings from the study indicate a moderate awareness of mental health issues among students. Familial and cultural stigma among Albanians in the Balkans hinder open discussions and access to professional help. There is a notable lack of support from higher education institutions, with only 20% of students reporting that their mental health needs are met. These needs include affordable and confidential counseling, empathetic faculty interactions, and a supportive campus environment. Additionally, there is a lack of continuous and professional help within the community. Societal attitudes deeply rooted in Albanian cultural norms and traditional beliefs perpetuate stigma, limiting effective health care and help-seeking behavior.DiscussionThe results emphasize the need for a culturally sensitive and holistic approach to mental health interventions that integrates strategies across multiple levels of the socio-ecological model. Enhancing mental health literacy, reducing stigma, and advocating for supportive legislation and policies in the Western Balkan region are critical. Moreover, the study highlights the urgent necessity for universities in particular to improve their mental health services, which will significantly enhance both the academic success and personal development of students.

In 2022 Greece became the fifth country in the world to ban harmful interventions and treatments on intersex infants and children. Previously, Malta, Portugal, Germany and Iceland also legally banned harmful interventions on intersex persons. A crucial difference between Greece and the rest of the aforementioned countries is that it is a Christian Orthodox country located in Southeastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Drawing from a contextual approach to law, in this comparative analysis the authors will use "contextuality" to explore the meaning behind legal developments that took place in Greece regarding intersex rights and how they could potentially impact the overall situation of intersex rights in the Balkans. In addition, with this paper the authors seek to relocate the dominant focus of intersex rights from Western and Northern Europe with the aim to boost awareness of intersex issues in the Western Balkan region, especially Serbia.

The Russian invasion of Ukraine, which began at the end of February 2022, confirmed the de facto impotence of the EU policy towards the Western Balkans. Only the reaffirmation of the United States of America and NATO’s roles in the Western Balkans after 2017 had a significant impact on the situation in the region, as it had for the previous three decades. The importance of their roles was confirmed after the entry of Montenegro and North Macedonia into NATO and the achievement of the Prespa Agreement (2018). However, there are still essentially unresolved issues, such as the relations between Belgrade and Pristina (which are currently accelerating primarily due to the US), the internal reconfiguration of relations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the gradual attempt to suppress the further growth of Russian influence in certain states of the region (it already has a strong influence in Serbia and the BiH entity, the Republic of Srpska). In this sense, the author emphasises that only after the additional integration of the countries of the region with the European Union and NATO, which implies an accelerated continuation of the EU enlargement process but also a strengthened open-door policy, can NATO additionally ensure peace in the Western Balkans, where there are still significant and visible consequences of post-Yugoslav wars and numerous problems, such as a lack of the rule of law, an insufficient fight against corruption, and cross-border crime. Therefore, the current moment, characterised and determined by Russia’s aggression against Ukraine, should ensure the acceleration of geopolitical responses related to the admission of the countries of the Western Balkans to the European Union and also empower the real and pro-European capacities of existing forms of regional cooperation. The author emphasises the necessity of accelerated integration of the remaining WB entities into NATO, which they have already pursued.

The Western Balkan region continues to face significant challenges in establishing the rule of law. This paper examines the socio-legal factors contributing to the weakness of the rule of law in the Western Balkans. It identifies three key factors: inefficient and unaccountable state institutions, the rule of informal institutions and corruption networks, and impotent formalistic judiciary. These are traced back to underlying historical, sociological, and legal prerequisites in the region. The analysis finds that state institutions in the Western Balkans are often extractive and controlled by political elites, undermining checks and balances. Additionally, informal institutions like clan networks continue to thrive, promoting corruption and impunity. Finally, the judiciary retains vestiges of socialist legal formalism, hampering impartial adjudication. Recommendations focus on the need for substantive domestic ownership of reforms by local actors. Sustainable rule of law requires capable and accountable state institutions along with strong civic engagement. The EU and international donors must re-examine their technocratic approach and insist on tangible improvements.

Covid-19, State-Power and Society in Europe: Focus on Western Balkans by Neven Andjelic focuses on the changes in political and social freedoms in the Western Balkans before and during the pandemic. In relation to this aim, it draws on the reports of 20 research organizations, including Freedom House, Friedrich Neumann Stiftung and the World Bank, and develops categories such as "open society", "fairly open society", "opening society", "suppressed society" and "closed society" and includes the Balkans, the European Union, the countries in the region and Türkiye in the analysis. Although this study is important because it has been carried out from a perspective dealing with the course of freedoms based on a comparison of pre-pandemic and pandemic process, it should be indicated that lack of an inquiry into the reliability and validity of the studies used and the lack of sufficient employment of other relevant researches are among the prominent shortcomings of this study.

This editorial introduction sets the scene for the special section of 6 papers on new migration trends in the Western Balkans. The paper is in 2 parts. The first reviews the history and geography of migration from the 6 countries of the region (WB6). The 5 successor states of the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia) have a similar migration profile, shaped by postwar labour migration to Germany, Austria and Switzerland, whilst Albania’s mass migration is more recent – since 1990 – and directed mainly to Italy and Greece. Whilst labour migrations dominated the 1960s and 1970s (the 1990s in Albania) and refugee movements accompanied the break-up of Yugoslavia, recent migration trends are more diverse, including especially highly educated young people and students, as well as transit migrants from the Middle East and other source countries. Most WB6 countries have policies to manage their migrations and mobilise return and the diasporas for development but, in practice, these measures are not effective. The second part of this introductory paper provides an integrated overview of the 6 papers, sequenced in a way that moves from the general (covering the region as a whole) to the particular situations of individual countries regarding such topics as the changing profile of migration, student migration, return migration and gender perspectives.

Reducing agricultural emissions is one of the most important issues in global policy, which is becoming increasingly challenging as time goes on. To address this, our study explores the major determinants of agricultural emissions in the Western Balkans while considering gross domestic product (GDP), agriculture value added, trade, energy use in agriculture, and foreign direct investments (FDI). The empirical results based on panel data analysis showed that GDP does not have a significant impact on emissions. Agriculture value added has had a significant and negative impact on nitrous oxide emissions and a significant and positive impact on methane emissions. Trade has significantly negatively affected nitrous oxide and methane emissions, while energy consumption has had a significant and positive impact on nitrous oxide and methane emissions. FDI has had a significant and positive impact on methane emissions, while its effect on nitrous oxide emissions was not statistically significant. This article can serve as a basis for further research on the topic.

The European Union's role in the region and in the world is changing rapidly due to several internal dynamics and external crises and challenges. EU's project of integration remains a role model for peace and stability in the region and beyond. The EU Integration has emerged as a shared key priority for the EU institutions and Western Balkan countries that are in different trajectories of the accession process due to several dynamics and developments within the Western Balkan countries, regional dynamics, and enlargement skepticism among EU member states. While a comprehensive academic thinking exists about the EU's enlargement policy at its approach to this region, this study aims to understand the internal/regional dynamics in the EU integration path of Western Balkan countries through an overview of their history of integration as well as the EC Progress Reports (2022) for each country. It combines theoretical and empirical knowledge to offer a descriptive analysis of internal and regional dynamics in the Western Balkans affecting their EU integration paths.

In the early 1990s, the Balkans faced some of the most violent military confrontations since the end of the Second World War. As a result of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the borders have been redesigned on the map of Europe and new states have emerged. Some of these countries have succeeded in becoming members of Euro-Atlantic structures. While Montenegro and North Macedonia became NATO members, and Slovenia and Croatia have integrated into both NATO and the European Union, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina continue to be affected by frozen conflicts and interethnic tensions. The research aims to analyze the evolution of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, focusing on the tourist potential of the capitals of these states, Sarajevo and Belgrade, respectively. The novelty of the research is to identify and analyze the potential of dark tourism in Sarajevo and Belgrade. The methodology used implied field research in both countries, in order to identify the tourism potential - with emphasis on dark tourism heritage on both countries. Also, the touristic offer in the two cities was analyzed, focusing on the dark tourism spectrum proposed by Philip R. Stone in 2006.

In the context of global efforts to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR), the importance of comprehensive AMR data is more crucial than ever. AMR surveillance networks, such as the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network (EARS-Net) and the Central Asian and European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance (CAESAR), support member states in obtaining high-quality AMR data. Nevertheless, data gaps persist in some countries, including those in the Western Balkans (WBs), a region with high AMR rates. This review analyzed existing research on carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) to better understand the AMR landscape in the WB countries. The most prevalent CRE was Klebsiella pneumoniae, followed by Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, and Proteus mirabilis, with sporadic cases of Morganella morganii, Providencia spp., Klebsiella oxytoca, and Citrobacter sedlakii. Carbapenemase production was identified as the most common mechanism of carbapenem resistance, but other resistance mechanisms were not investigated. An increasing trend in carbapenem resistance has been observed over the last decade, alongside a shift in carbapenemase epidemiology from the NDM type in 2013–2014 to the OXA-48 type in recent years. Few studies have applied whole-genome sequencing for CRE analysis, which has demonstrated the spread of resistance determinants across different niches and over time, emphasizing the importance of molecular-based research. The overall low number of studies in the WB countries can be attributed to limited resources, highlighting the need for enhanced support in education, training, technology, and equipment to improve data collection and evaluation.

Russia has always had a keen interest in the Western Balkans. It was historically realised in the context of geopolitical continuities of the expansion of its territory and influence. Russia has tried to gain influence in this region for political, economic, identity and strategic reasons. However, after the start of military aggression against Ukraine in 2014, Russia opted for a confrontation in the Western Balkans where it opposes the EU and NATO expansion policies and influence of the West in this region. Key Russian leverage for spreading its influence in the region is the Serbian geopolitical design of military neutrality and the convergence of strategic interests of the two countries. Russia wants to exert a strong influence on the Western Balkans, and thus on the security of the EU. On the other hand, Serbia wants to position itself as the main actor of power in the region with simultaneous support from both Russia and the West.

IntroductionLow birth weight, defined as a birth weight below 2,500 g, represents a significant public health concern with a multifactorial risk dimension. Socio-demographic factors and individual characteristics of women and their social environment could influence low birth weight. This study aimed to analyze the association between the socio-demographic and reproductive characteristics of women living in low-income households and low birth weight in Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro.MethodsThis study was conducted as secondary data analysis during the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey – Round 6 in Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro. The household questionnaire and the individual questionnaire for women aged 15–49 were used as standard research instruments. We analyzed 1,019 women whose households belonged to the first (poorest) or second (poor) wealth index quintiles and who had given birth to a live child within the 2 years preceding the study. A multivariate logistic regression was applied with low birth weight in newborns as the outcome variable.ResultsThe univariate regression analysis showed that women with low birth weight newborns were significantly more likely to live in settlements mainly inhabited by Roma, reside in urban areas, marry or enter a union before age 18, have lower education levels, experience higher illiteracy rates, and receive antenatal care not provided by a medical doctor compared to women whose newborns weighed 2.5 kg or more. A multivariate logistic regression model with a low birth weight of newborns as an outcome variable showed the association between women’s illiteracy (OR: 1.741; 95% CI: 1.060–2.859) and antenatal care not provided by a medical doctor (OR: 2.735; 95% CI: 1.229–6.087).DiscussionIlliteracy and limited access to medical doctor services during pregnancy were factors that increased the likelihood of low birth weight in newborns born to women living in low-income households in the selected Western Balkans populations. The cross-sectional design of this study does not allow the establishment of causal relationships among variables, but it can provide important evidence for future prevention strategies. Interventions are needed to enhance the education of women and to improve access to antenatal care across Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro.

IntroductionWest Nile Virus, an emerging zoonotic pathogen, has been circulating in Serbia for over a decade, with its first detection in mosquitoes in 2010. Since then, the virus has led to increasing cases in both animals and humans, peaking in 2018 with 415 human cases and 36 fatalities. This study aimed to explore the phylogenetic relationships between previously sequenced West Nile virus strains from Serbia and those sequenced in this study, while also identifying possible virulence factors.Materials and methodsWhole genome sequencing was conducted using a targeted approach on the MinION Mk1C platform, following a two-step process involving cDNA synthesis and amplification. Bioinformatics analysis included demultiplexing, primer trimming, and sequence mapping using tools such as iVar, Minimap2, and Samtools. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using MAFFT alignment and the Maximum Likelihood method with the Tamura Nei model in MEGA X software. Virulence factors were assessed in both structural and nonstructural proteins, focusing on key glycosylation motifs and specific mutations. Homology modeling of the E protein was also performed to evaluate potential structural changes due to mutations.ResultsPhylogenetic analysis revealed two major sublineages within the E subclade, representing the majority of strains from Western and Central Europe. These sublineages likely originated from Austria, Serbia, and Hungary between 2008 and 2012. The study also identified three distinct sublineages within the D subclade, which includes more diverse strains from Southern Europe. The E protein exhibited significant variations, particularly at the E159 site, which is crucial for virulence. The EI159T aa change has become dominant in recent years, replacing the previously prevalent EI159M. Additionally, changes in the NS1 glycoprotein and NS3 protein, both of which are involved in immune modulation and viral replication, were identified, with potential implications for the virus’s virulence.ConclusionThe study’s findings highlight the Western Balkans and Central Europe as key regions for the mixing and dissemination of West Nile virus strains from both Western-Central and Southern Europe. These results underscore the importance of continuous surveillance and phylogenetic analysis to monitor the evolution and spread of West Nile virus, particularly in light of the frequent mutations observed in virulence-associated sites.

Following the relevant literature on higher education services, the objective of this study explores how the higher education perceived value outlines students' satisfaction with the service and their migration intentions. Data from 1,150 university students in Macedonia was collected and analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling. The results showed that functional, emotional, conditional and image value perceived about the degree are significant incitements of overall satisfaction, while social influence by reference groups minimizes satisfaction. In turn, students' satisfaction decreases their intentions to leave the country. Moreover, the year of study acts as a moderator by delivering higher satisfaction, hence reducing brain drain intentions, for students in higher courses. The conclusions of this research emphasize the need for universities to increase appreciation of the higher education system's quality, efficiency, and reputation. Since the beginning of their studies, students should be able to recognize and experience their education as beneficial for their professional future in the country, reducing in this way one of the major concerns in Western Balkans, the brain drain intentions.

Although Western Balkan economies are still on the list of EU candidates or potential candidate countries, they do have some integration with EU economies. The EU is the leading trading partner of the Western Balkans and is one of the top destinations for the fl ow of people. The Western Balkan economies have been trying to address their populations’ ongoing emigration (the so-called “brain drain” phenomenon) by implementing targeted economic policies. Since one of the main contributors to economic growth is the ability to create innovation, it is crucial to building innovation potential. The main challenge for innovation policy is to provide a favourable environment for entrepreneurship and economic growth to create jobs. Thus, this paper aims to examine innovation potential – an innovation input – as it creates the conditions needed for innovation development. The results of analysing the data (on research and development spending, human resources, an environment friendly to innovation, and intellectual property rights) indicate that the Western Balkan countries are lagging behind the EU in many aspects of innovation potential, so they should still develop their strategies towards creating higher innovation potential. Thus, they will be able to have a higher level of innovation and, as a result, be more competitive in economic terms.

Many Roma across Europe continue to face a range of social problems, including ethnic discrimination, marginalisation, residential segregation, socio‐economic inequality, and extremist violence. The lack of effective policies to address these issues has reinforced a climate of hatred against Roma, further isolating many of them. It has also affected their position in the political arena, where Roma remain severely underrepresented. In this article, we analyse the situation of Roma in three Western Balkan countries and the policies developed to support them. We discuss the institutional structures for managing and improving the socio‐economic conditions of identity‐based communities and examine the position of the Roma within these institutional contexts. We also explore attitudes towards Roma‐related policies and how Roma citizens themselves in these three countries perceive their position.

Focusing on countries remnants of former Yugoslavia, this article traces sources of Russia’s influence in the region, departing from the idea that these sources are of political-diplomatic, military, economic, and socio-cultural nature. Revealing the manner in which Russia uses its influence leverages in the Western Balkans, the article relies on an extensive qualitative data collected through a variety of sources including scholarly literature on the topic, statements of political leadership, interviews and informal conversations with Russian and regional decision-makers directly involved in negotiation processes, official documents, mass media reports, and social media groups and discussions. Led by the question of in what ways and to what extent has Russia influenced the post-Yugoslav region, the article sheds the light on usually overlooked aspect of Russia’s influence on the relations between the republics of former Yugoslavia in the first two decades of twenty-first century. The article closes with the analysis of effects of Russia’s full-fledged 2022 invasion in Ukraine on the intensity and nature of its influence in the Balkans.