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This paper analyses the decision-making processes behind the reform of a policy that had caused significant controversy for over a decade. At 8 p.m. on 21 November 2000 the Minister of State for the Environment, Bobby Molloy, TD, signed S.I. No. 367/2000 – Road Traffic (Public Service Vehicles) (Amendment) (No. 3) into law. This statutory instrument provided ‘for the full resumption of taxi licensing’ and ‘the revocation of regulatory provisions involving quantitative restrictions on the licensing of taxis and hackneys’. With the stroke of a pen, Molloy had effectively ended the taxi licensees’ de facto 21-year control of public service vehicle licensing policy. The paper finds Molloy’s decision to have been a significant policy improvement as it brought about a substantially better taxi service. In addition, the paper shows that even with strong evidence of policy failure, its reform can take a considerable time. With regard to the four-factor framework of institutions, ideology, interests and irrationality, I find that the institutions of the state, while initially facilitating the regulatory capture of the policy by the taxi sector, eventually ensured that this was broken down due to the electoral system and the separation of powers. Up until the reform decision, the interests of the taxi licensees and their political supporters eclipsed the common good. Ideology played a significant role as a backdrop to the policy but ideology was not the primary reason the minister deregulated. Finally, I find that the collective irrationality of the taxi sector leads to an overestimation of their power due to an inability to process the relevant information and collectively agree a reasonable compromise. The key recommendations of the paper are that the means of policy setting should be radically and innovatively overhauled, and that it is imperative that regulators harness the vast information that taxi apps gather in order to improve regulatory outcomes.

Static compression experiments over 4 Mbar are rare, yet critical for developing accurate fundamental physics and chemistry models, relevant to a range of topics including modeling planetary interiors. Here we show that focused ion beam crafted toroidal single-crystal diamond anvils with ~9.0 μm culets are capable of producing pressures over 5 Mbar. The toroidal surface prevents gasket outflow and provides a means to stabilize the central culet. We have reached a maximum pressure of ~6.15 Mbar using Re as in situ pressure marker, a pressure regime typically accessed only by double-stage diamond anvils and dynamic compression platforms. Optimizing single-crystal diamond anvil design is key for extending the pressure range over which studies can be performed in the diamond anvil cell.

At ambient pressure, BiTeI exhibits a giant Rashba splitting of the bulk electronic bands. At low pressures, BiTeI undergoes a transition from trivial insulator to topological insulator. At still higher pressures, two structural transitions are known to occur. We have carried out a series of electrical resistivity and AC magnetic susceptibility measurements on BiTeI at pressure up to  ∼40 GPa in an effort to characterize the properties of the high-pressure phases. A previous calculation found that the high-pressure orthorhombic P4/nmm structure BiTeI is a metal. We find that this structure is superconducting with T c values as high as 6 K. AC magnetic susceptibility measurements support the bulk nature of the superconductivity. Using electronic structure and phonon calculations, we compute T c and find that our data is consistent with phonon-mediated superconductivity.

We describe a method to make even insulation layers for high-pressure laser-heated diamond-anvil cell samples using stepped anvils. The method works for both single-sided and double-sided laser heating using solid or fluid insulation. The stepped anvils are used as matched pairs or paired with a flat culet anvil to make gasket insulation layers and not actually used at high pressures; thus, their longevity is ensured. We compare the radial temperature gradients and Soret diffusion of iron between self-insulating samples and samples produced with stepped anvils and find that less pronounced Soret diffusion occurs in samples with even insulation layers produced by stepped anvils.

Iridium-based 5d transition-metal oxides are attractive candidates for the study of correlated electronic states due to the interplay of enhanced crystal-field, Coulomb and spin-orbit interaction energies. At ambient pressure, these conditions promote a novel Jeff = 1/2 Mott-insulating state, characterized by a gap of the order of ~0.1 eV. We present high-pressure electrical resistivity measurements of single crystals of Sr2IrO4 and Sr3Ir2O7. While no indications of a pressure-induced metallic state up to 55 GPa were found in Sr2IrO4, a strong decrease of the gap energy and of the resistance of Sr3Ir2O7 between ambient pressure and 104 GPa confirm that this compound is in the proximity of a metal-insulator transition.

Simultaneous low-temperature electrical resistivity and Hall effect measurements were performed on single-crystalline Bi2Se3 under applied pressures up to 50 GPa. As a function of pressure, superconductivity is observed to onset above 11 GPa with a transition temperature Tc and upper critical field Hc2 that both increase with pressure up to 30 GPa, where they reach maximum values of 7 K and 4 T, respectively. Upon further pressure increase, Tc remains anomalously constant up to the highest achieved pressure. Conversely, the carrier concentration increases continuously with pressure, including a tenfold increase over the pressure range where Tc remains constant. Together with a quasilinear temperature dependence of Hc2 that exceeds the orbital and Pauli limits, the anomalously stagnant pressure dependence of Tc points to an unconventional pressure-induced pairing state in Bi2Se3 that is unique among the superconducting topological insulators.

High-pressure electrical resistance measurements have been performed on single crystal Ba(0.5)Sr(0.5)Fe(2)As(2) platelets to pressures of 16 GPa and temperatures down to 10 K using designer diamond anvils under quasi-hydrostatic conditions with an insulating steatite pressure medium. The resistance measurements show evidence of pressure-induced superconductivity with an onset transition temperature at ∼31 K and zero resistance at ∼22 K for a pressure of 3.3 GPa. The transition temperature decreases gradually with increasing pressure before completely disappearing for pressures above 12 GPa. The present results provide experimental evidence that a solid solution of two 122-type materials, i.e., Ba(1-x)Sr(x)Fe(2)As(2) (0 < x < 1), can also exhibit superconductivity under high pressure.

Neutron diffraction and electrical transport measurements have been made on the heavy rare earth metal holmium at high pressures and low temperatures in order to elucidate its transition from a paramagnetic (PM) to a helical antiferromagnetic (AFM) ordered phase as a function of pressure. The electrical resistance measurements show a change in the resistance slope as the temperature is lowered through the antiferromagnetic Néel temperature. The temperature of this antiferromagnetic transition decreases from approximately 122 K at ambient pressure at a rate of -4.9 K GPa(-1) up to a pressure of 9 GPa, whereupon the PM-to-AFM transition vanishes for higher pressures. Neutron diffraction measurements as a function of pressure at 89 and 110 K confirm the incommensurate nature of the phase transition associated with the antiferromagnetic ordering of the magnetic moments in a helical arrangement and that the ordering occurs at similar pressures as determined from the resistance results for these temperatures.

We report x-ray diffraction, electrical resistivity, and magnetoresistance measurements on Bi2Se3 under high pressure and low temperature conditions. Pressure induces profound changes in both the room temperature value of the electrical resistivity as well as the temperature dependence of the resistivity. Initially, pressure drives Bi2Se3 toward increasingly insulating behavior and then, at higher pressures, the sample appears to enter a fully metallic state coincident with a change in the crystal structure. Within the low pressure phase, Bi2Se3 exhibits an unusual field dependence of the transverse magnetoresistance Δρ(xx) that is positive at low fields and becomes negative at higher fields. Our results demonstrate that pressures below 8 GPa provide a non-chemical means to controllably reduce the bulk conductivity of Bi2Se3.

High pressure x-ray diffraction and electrical resistance measurements have been carried out on SrFe(2)As(2) to a pressure of 23 GPa and temperature of 10 K using a synchrotron source and designer diamond anvils. At ambient temperature, a phase transition from the tetragonal phase to a collapsed tetragonal (CT) phase is observed at 10 GPa under non-hydrostatic conditions. The experimental relation that T-CT transition pressure for 122 Fe-based superconductors is dependent on ambient pressure volume is affirmed. The superconducting transition temperature is observed at 32 K at 1.3 GPa and decreases rapidly with a further increase of pressure in the region where the T-CT transition occurs. Our results suggest that T(C) falls below 10 K in the pressure range of 10-18 GPa where the CT phase is expected to be stable., (© 2011 IOP Publishing Ltd)

The crystal structure and electrical resistance of structurally layered EuFe(2)As(2) have been studied up to 70 GPa and down to a temperature of 10 K, using a synchrotron x-ray source and designer diamond anvils. The room temperature compression of the tetragonal phase of EuFe(2)As(2) (I4/mmm) results in an increase in the a-axis length and a rapid decrease in the c-axis length with increasing pressure. This anomalous compression reaches a maximum at 8 GPa and the tetragonal lattice behaves normally above 10 GPa, with a nearly constant c/a axial ratio. The rapid rise in the superconducting transition temperature (T(c)) to 41 K with increasing pressure is correlated with this anomalous compression, and a decrease in T(c) is observed above 10 GPa. We present P-V data or the equation of state for EuFe(2)As(2) both in the ambient tetragonal phase and in the high pressure collapsed tetragonal phase up to 70 GPa.

We have investigated structural and magnetic phase transitions under high pressures in a quaternary rare-earth transition-metal arsenide oxide NdCoAsO compound that is isostructural to the high temperature superconductor parent phase NdFeAsO. The four-probe electrical resistance measurements carried out in a designer diamond anvil cell show that the ferromagnetic Curie temperature and antiferromagnetic Néel temperature increase with an increase in pressure. High pressure x-ray diffraction studies using a synchrotron source show a structural phase transition from a tetragonal phase to a new crystallographic phase at a pressure of 23 GPa at 300 K. The NdCoAsO sample remained antiferromagnetic and non-superconducting down to 10 K and up to the highest pressure achieved in this experiment, 53 GPa. A P-T phase diagram for NdCoAsO is presented from ambient conditions to P = 53 GPa and T = 10 K.

High pressure superconductivity in iron-based superconductor FeSe(0.5)Te(0.5) has been studied up to 15 GPa and 10 K using an eight probe designer diamond anvil in a diamond anvil cell device. Four probe electrical resistance measurements show the onset of superconductivity (T(c)) at 14 K at ambient pressure with T(c) increasing with increasing pressure to 19 K at a pressure of 3.6 GPa. At higher pressures beyond 3.6 GPa, T(c) decreases and extrapolation suggests non-superconducting behavior above 10 GPa. The loss of superconductivity coincides with the pressure induced disordering of the Fe(SeTe)(4) tetrahedra reported at 11 GPa in x-ray diffraction studies at ambient temperature.

Small electrical heating elements have been lithographically fabricated onto the culets of "designer" diamond anvils for the purpose of performing high-pressure and high-temperature experiments on metals. The thin-film geometry of the heating elements makes them very resistant to plastic deformation during high-pressure loading, and their small cross-sectional area enables them to be electrically heated to very high temperatures with relatively modest currents (approximately = 1 A). The technique also offers excellent control and temporal stability of the sample temperature. Test experiments on gold samples have been performed for pressures up to 21 GPa and temperatures of nearly 2000 K.

Single-wall carbon nanotube samples were studied under high pressures to 62 GPa using designer diamond anvils with buried electrical microprobes that allowed for monitoring of the four-probe electrical resistance at elevated pressure. After initial densification, the electrical resistance shows a steady increase from 3 to 42 GPa, followed by a sharp rise above 42 GPa. This sharp rise in electrical resistance at high pressures is attributed to opening of an energy band gap with compression. Nanoindentation hardness measurements on the pressure-treated carbon nanotube samples gave a hardness value of 0.50 +/- 0.03 GPa. This hardness value is approximately 2 orders of magnitude lower than the amorphous carbon phase produced in fullerenes under similar conditions. Therefore, the pressure treatment of single-wall carbon nanotubes to 62 GPa did not produce a superhard carbon phase.

We compare electrical and mechanical properties of C70 fullerene with high purity graphite to 48 GPa at room temperature using designer diamond anvils with embedded electrical microprobes. The electrical resistance of C70 shows a minimum at 20 GPa with transformation to an amorphous insulating phase complete above 35 GPa, while graphite remains conducting. Nanoindentation shows hardness values 220 times larger for the pressure quenched amorphous phase than for similarly treated graphite. Our studies establish that the amorphous carbon phase produced from C70 has unique properties not attainable from graphite.

Electrical conductivities of molecular hydrogen in Jupiter were calculated by scaling electrical conductivities measured at shock pressures in the range of 10 to 180 gigapascals (0.1 to 1.8 megabars) and temperatures to 4000 kelvin, representative of conditions inside Jupiter. Jupiter's magnetic field is caused by convective dynamo motion of electrically conducting fluid hydrogen. The data imply that Jupiter should become metallic at 140 gigapascals in the fluid, and the electrical conductivity in the jovian molecular envelope at pressures up to metallization is about an order of magnitude larger than expected previously. The large magnetic field is produced in the molecular envelope closer to the surface than previously thought.

X-ray diffraction studies have been carried out on alkali halide samples 10 micrometers in diameter (volume 10(-9) cubic centimeter) subjected to megabar pressures in the diamond anvil cell. Energy-dispersive techniques and a synchrotron source were used. These measurements can be used to detect crystallographic phase transitions. Cesium iodide was subjected to pressures of 95 gigapascals (fractional volume of 46 percent) and rubidium iodide to pressures of 89 gigapascals (fractional volume of 39 percent). Cesium iodide showed a transformation from the cubic B2 phase (cesium chloride structure) to a tetragonal phase and then to an orthorhombic phase, which was stable to 95 gigapascals. Rubidium iodide showed only a transition from the low-pressure cubic B1 phase (sodium chloride structure) to the B2 phase, which was stable up to 89 gigapascals.