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Objective Determine the effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) for the treatment of axial low back pain (LBP) with or without leg pain. Design Systematic review. Subjects Persons aged ≥18 with axial LBP with or without accompanying leg pain. Intervention Traditional low-frequency, burst, or high-frequency SCS. Comparison Sham, active standard of care treatment, or none. Outcomes The primary outcome was ≥50% pain improvement, and the secondary outcome was functional improvement measured six or more months after treatment intervention. Methods Publications in PubMed, MEDLINE, and Cochrane databases were reviewed through September 19, 2019. Randomized or nonrandomized comparative studies and nonrandomized studies without internal controls were included. The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and GRADE system were used to assess individual study characteristics and overall quality. Results Query identified 262 publications; 17 were suitable for inclusion. For high-frequency SCS, the only level 1 study showed that 79% (95% confidence interval = 70–87%) of patients reported ≥50% pain improvement. For low-frequency SCS, the only level 1 study reported no categorical data for axial LBP-specific outcomes; axial LBP improved by a mean 14 mm on the visual analog scale at six months. Meta-analysis was not performed due to study heterogeneity. Conclusions According to GRADE, there is low-quality evidence that high-frequency SCS compared with low-frequency SCS is effective in patients with axial LBP with concomitant leg pain. There is very low-quality evidence for low-frequency SCS for the treatment of axial LBP in patients with concomitant leg pain. There is insufficient evidence addressing the effectiveness of burst SCS to apply a GRADE rating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Thoracic transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESIs) are procedures performed for the treatment of thoracic spine pain (TSP). The literature on these interventions is sparse., Purpose: To report outcomes of thoracic TFESIs for TSP indications., Study Design: Multicenter, retrospective, cross-sectional cohort study., Patient Sample: Consecutive patients receiving thoracic TFESIs at three academic spine centers., Outcome Measures: The primary outcome was the proportion of patients reporting at least 50% improvement in NRS pain score at short-term follow-up (>1 week, <3 months post-injection)., Methods: A chart review was performed of consecutive patients who underwent a thoracic TFESI over a 4- to 10-year time period at three academic spine centers and had reported an NRS pain score at short-term follow-up., Results: Overall, 19/64 patients (30% [95% CI 20-42%]) experienced ≥50% relief following the injection at a median 22 days follow-up. 42% [95% CI 31-54%] experienced at least a 2-point improvement in NRS score. There was a slight improvement in median NRS scores from pre-to post-procedure of -1 (IQR -3, 0), from 6/10 to 5/10 (p ​< ​0.001). The success rate (≥50% pain relief) was 36% [95%CI 22-52%] in those with a disc herniation as compared to 21% [95%CI 10-40%]) in those with degenerative stenosis; however, the difference did not reach statistical significance. There was a trend towards a greater success rate in those who were employed vs. unemployed (43% [95% CI 27-61%] vs. 19% [95% CI 9-36%])., Conclusions: This is the largest series reporting outcomes from thoracic TFESI to date. Overall, the observed success rate was low compared to known success rates associated with TFESI for the treatment of pain at cervical and lumbar spinal regions., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2021 The Authors.)