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Research clearly demonstrates the importance of students' reading behaviors for predicting students' short- and long-term outcomes. While teachers' instruction might affect these reading behaviors (and therefore indirectly affect achievement), we know little about the association of in-school teacher practices with students' out-of-school behaviors. In this brief, we draw on data from IEA's 2011 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) to examine the relationships of several instructional practices with multiple measures of students' out-of-school reading. Finding wide variation in instruction across countries and several significant associations, we conclude with policy implications for policymakers, teachers, parents, and researchers. A table detailing the average extent of student reading outside school by country is appended.

Equity in Excellence is a two-year project launched in 2013 to support the implementation of Colorado's higher education reform agenda. With a focus on the metropolitan Denver area, the project intends to align the state's higher education policies with concrete, equity-focused actions at its public community colleges and four-year institutions. The purpose of this policy audit is to inform project, state, and institutional leaders about current policy and practice in Colorado with respect to equity as they work with the Center for Urban Education (CUE) at the University of Southern California to assess and analyze how to better align state policy with equity-focused actions at the institutional level. Specifically, this audit analyzes alignment, gaps, and opportunities in state, system, and institutional policies, as well as the interaction between them, with an eye toward intentional and unintentional outcomes. It provides an external, objective perspective, with the goal of assisting Colorado's state and institutional higher education leaders in designing (or redesigning) policies to achieve the goals laid out in the state's master plan, and to make those policies equitable toward all students. The following is appended: Equity in Excellence Advisory Board Members.

Individual Development Accounts (IDAs), originally chartered under the federal Assets for Independence (AFI) Act in 1998, may provide an opportunity for increasing access to postsecondary education for low-income youth and adults by providing funds through a mix of their own savings and federal and private funds. However, many IDA savers and IDA practitioners have raised concerns about whether IDA accountholders will face unintended negative consequences as a result of their IDA savings when they apply for financial aid to attend college. At the same time, financial aid administrators are often uncertain about integrating IDA distributions into the financial aid process and policies. This paper is aimed primarily at IDA practitioners for the purpose of helping them understand how IDAs are handled in the financial aid process. This information can also be used by or shared with financial aid administrators to assist IDA practitioners in their conversations with this group. This paper attempts to clarify how IDAs should be handled in the financial aid process, with particular focus on the Pell Grant and other "portable" aid. Current best practices are offered to help IDA practitioners, financial aid administrators, and low-income IDA account holders maximize the utilization of IDAs for educational purposes. Appended are: (1) Assets for Independence Act: Education IDA Policies; (2) Eligibility Requirements for the Automatic Zero EFC and Simplified EFC Formula; (3) Asset Protection Allowance (APA) and the Treatment of Assets for Non-AFI IDA Savers Who Do Not Quality for the Simplified EFC Formula; (4) Definition of an Independent Student; and (5) Glossary. (Contains 18 footnotes.)

Study after study demonstrates that low-income students are severely underrepresented in higher education. In fact, the attendance rate of low-income students appears to be declining rather than growing. Individual Development Accounts or IDAs used for postsecondary education can help address the problem. With an IDA, youth can afford to enroll in college and adults can gain the necessary funds to remain in college. The asset building and education fields will benefit from a wider use of IDAs for education. However, this potential is unlikely to be reached unless the IDA field moves from the current program design, which is based on homeownership, to a unique program designed to meet the specific needs of education IDAs. Education IDAs need to break from the housing mold to be successful. One reason that the unique design components for education IDAs are unknown is that postsecondary stakeholders were left out of the IDA demonstration projects, research, and legislation. No document currently exists to help IDA practitioners develop a program design for education IDAs. This report highlights how to rethink one's program design when offering education IDAs and how to maximize such efforts by partnering with postsecondary institutions. Appended are: (1) Organization profiles; (2) Why is education important for your future and how can education IDAs help you reach your educational goals?; (3) Financial education resources for youth and adults; and (4) Education asset resources for IDA practitioners. (Contains 20 footnotes.) [This paper was written with Hannah Yang and Adrianna Kezar.]

The overarching goal for this project was to examine the potential for increasing IDA use for educational purposes and to explore higher education's involvement with IDAs, as well as the potential for greater participation. The three main objectives for the project were to: (1) describe and understand current education IDA initiatives, particularly those with postsecondary involvement and partnerships; (2) examine the potential of IDAs for increasing access to education for low-income students; and (3) explore challenges to and facilitators of growth and expansion of education IDAs and involvement of the postsecondary sector. The study concludes that education IDAs have limited, but important, potential to help low-income students in the following ways: (1) Reaching key populations often outside the reach of financial aid; (2) Creating access to higher education; (3) Increasing retention; (4) Providing financial education to break the cycle of poverty; (5) Decreasing the debt burden and default rates; and (6) Increasing funding for low-income students by leveraging existing scholarships. Recommendations for policymakers and institutional leaders are provided in order to realize the potential of education IDAs. (Contains 8 footnotes.) [This report was written with assistance from Hannah Yang and Jaime Lester.]

In this document the authors provide practitioners offering education Independent Development Accounts (IDAs) with information about whom to partner with in a postsecondary institution. The authors gained this information through interviews, focus groups, and case studies with higher education and IDA practitioners. College campuses can sometimes feel like miniature cities and the authors want to make their partnerships with them as smooth as possible. This paper presents a list of some questions that will be answered through this document: (1) With which postsecondary institution should I partner?; (2) Whom should I contact initially?; (3) Who should be involved in the follow-up conversation?; (4) Where do I house the IDA?; (5) Where can I get match?; (6) Is there a financial institution on campus?; (7) Who can assist with asset-specific training?; and (8) Who already offers financial education? (Contains 7 endnotes.)

This document provides resources to both begin and carry out the application process for an IDA grant. The authors offer some key advice to consider when applying for an IDA when in the education sector. They close with some challenges and ways to overcome them. The authors gained much of this information from an education organization's experience (the Foundation for Independent Higher Education-FIHE) which was the first education organization to apply for a grant. (Contains 2 footnotes.)

In their paper entitled "Why should postsecondary institutions consider partnering to offer (Individual Development Accounts (IDAs)?" the authors reviewed frequently asked questions they encountered from higher education professionals about IDAs, but as their research continued so did the questions. FAQ II has more in-depth questions and answers for higher education practitioners as they begin working with education IDAs. This paper presents questions and answers to topics related to IDA including: (1) Funding Specifics; (2) Eligibility; (3) Account Information; (4) 529s; (5) Tax Credits; (6) Education IDA Specifics; (7) Low-Income; (8) Program Design; (9) Financial Education; (10) Match; and (11) Financial Aid.

The education community offers a plethora of resources from which IDA practitioners can draw as they support their clients in asset-specific training. This paper presents an annotated list of internet resources on preparing for college. Most of these resources are for youth aspiring to go to college. The websites are broken down according to the following topics: (1) Benefits of going to college; (2) Classes to take in high school; (3) Tests; (4) Choosing a school/admissions process; and (5) Applying for financial aid.

In this paper, the authors reviewed frequently asked questions they encountered from higher education professionals about IDAs. Here, they provide answers to the following questions: (1) What is an IDA?; (2) Who funds an IDA?; (3) Are IDAs just about money?; (4) Why haven't I heard of an IDA?; (5) There are scholarships to cover low-income student expenses, so why are IDAs necessary?; (6) Won't low-income students be penalized if they save for college because they will receive less financial aid?; (7) Are low-income people capable of saving? How much can they actually save for education?; (8) How much can IDAs actually help students get for education?; (9) Why should special funding and initiatives for low-income students exist? Exactly what is the income of these students?; (10) Why are IDAs an important tool to help low-income students? TRIO programs are already offered. (11) What benefits are there to accepting students who have been saving for an IDA?; (12) What are the financial implications to my postsecondary institution for partnering to offer IDAs? What if I want to offer an IDA out of our institution?; (13) What exactly are the component parts of administering an IDA? In which areas can postsecondary institutions help most?; (14) I think IDAs would be a great tool for our school. What can I do?; and (15) Do you have any examples of current partnerships between postsecondary institutions and nonprofits?

Education plays a critical role in how adolescents mature into adults. A vulnerable, and often forgotten, sub-population of the poor is homeless youth, for whom lack of a stable or adequate residence creates a unique set of educational barriers. The Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis (CHEPA) spent 18 months documenting the experiences of homeless adolescents in Los Angeles, deriving data from 123 interviews with homeless adolescents between the ages of 14 and 19, and an additional 45 interviews with shelter staff, social workers, parents, teachers, and school district administrators. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 30 of the youth to understand their experiences in greater depth. Over 400 hours were dedicated to observing the daily lives of homeless youth. The project had two primary goals: (1) To give a voice to homeless youth who are frequently powerless and invisible; and (2) To initiate a dialog with policymakers and practitioners concerning the improvement of educational policy as it pertains to homeless youth. The following research questions framed the analysis: (1) What are the lives of homeless adolescents like? (2) How do homeless youth conceptualize themselves? (3) How do they spend their time? (4) How do they negotiate educational and social barriers? (5) How do they create support systems in and out of school? and (6) What are the different factors they prioritize as crucial to their development? The authors conclude that the current educational system is either irrelevant or hostile to the daily needs of homeless youth. Based on study findings, the authors suggest that policy conversation needs to turn towards addressing specific educational needs to prevent youth from being trapped in a cycle of homelessness. The creation of alternative educational opportunities, mentoring programs, and closer working relationships between shelters and schools warrants greater public discussion on federal, state, and local levels. (Contains 5 boxes and 1 table.) [This research was supported by the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation.]

Through their conversations with IDA practitioners across the country, the authors have identified 14 strategies for successfully partnering with postsecondary institutions. These are: (1) Identify the right savers; (2) Match education to the needs of the region or state; (3) Invite educational partners to join your advisory board; (4) Identify the right postsecondary partner(s); (5) Develop a compelling message and educate your potential partner; (6) Recognize that nonprofits and educational institutions often have different cultures; (7) Start at the top; (8) Encourage top-level leaders to brainstorm with key offices; (9) Develop personal contacts and a champion; (10) Understand the financial aid implications of IDAs; (11) Create a partnership around existing service or strengths of the postsecondary institution; (12) Brainstorm the overall design together; (13) Formalize the partnership in a memorandum of understanding; and (14) Build a network or collaborative.

The goal of college preparation programs is to help students, particularly underrepresented students of color, to enroll and succeed in college. While many programs focus on strengthening students' math and reading skills, familiarizing them with college entrance exams, and demystifying the college admissions process, there are few guidelines for how these programs should be structured and which intervention practices are most effective at achieving the desired results. This report draws on several qualitative and quantitative data sources, collected as part of a longitudinal study of college preparation programs, to gather demographic information and data to determine why students enroll in special programs, the attitudes their family and friends have about the program, and students' academic and non-academic behaviors. Information was also gathered about student aspirations, obstacles, self-efficacy, identity and more. The Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis (CHEPA) seeks through this research to discern which elements of college preparation programs are more effective than others and why. While research on this topic is ongoing, CHEPA has identified several common program challenges. These are: (1) Many programs are geared toward short-term solutions; (2) Few programs have coordinated relationships with the schools that the students attend and the postsecondary institutions where students will attend; (3) Families are often ill equipped to provide advice to their children; (4) Most programs survive on soft money; (5) Program evaluation is absent; (6) Student attrition from the day they graduate from high school until the end of their first term at college remains a significant problem; (7) Most graduates of college preparation programs attend two-year community colleges or public state universities; and (8) Academic, counseling and social activities are the primary components of college preparation programs. Program characteristics, instructional components, and desired outcomes are outlined in a flowchart of model college preparation programs. Strategies for improving program effectiveness and next steps for stakeholders conclude this report. [This report was produced by the Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis, Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California.]

Access programs are facing increased scrutiny. Not all programs are equally effective. In an environment in which resources are short, funders increasingly require criteria that enable them to make informed decisions about program quality. As elaborated in this report , one role of a high performance board is to help develop benchmarks of effectiveness. The analysis presented in this report is based on an extensive review of the literature about the role of boards in non-profit organizations, and interviews with 53 individuals who either work in college access programs or have served on their boards. Accordingly, this text has three parts. First, the role of boards in college preparation programs is delineated and how high performing boards function is considered. The report then turns to a discussion of the qualities of effective board members. It concludes by suggesting that one of the top priorities of an executive director of a college access program should be creating and sustaining a positive relationship with the board. An effective board will not ensure an effective college preparation program; however, the lack of an effective board will make it that much harder to achieve a stable and worthwhile program. A list of available resources is also included. [This document was produced by University of Southern California's Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis. Printing and dissemination costs for this publication are supported by the National College Access Network (NCAN).]

Attempts to address the dearth of research on Asian and Pacific-Islander community college students by exploring the predictors of persistence and retention, and the course taking patterns of Asian Pacific American students enrolled in urban community colleges. This correlational study utilized data collected for the Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS). Beginning in the academic year 2000 and continuing the next three years, the TRUCCS project was designed to be a longitudinal study of the goals, success and academic patterns of 5,000 students attending nine urban Los Angeles Community Colleges. Of the 4,433 responding students, 16.6% of the students identified themselves in the category described as Asian-Pacific American. The research instrument was a 47-item questionnaire informed by theories of student retention, persistence, and success. The results of this study confirm that Asian Pacific Americans are different from other larger or more dominant ethnic groups and that there are significant differences between the various ethnic groups that comprise the Asian Pacific American group. These differences suggest that significant information about unique and identifiable ethnic groups is being lost when data is aggregated into larger ethnic groupings. Appended is summary information for each survey item. (Contains 33 references.) (RC)

This monograph presents the results of a survey of nearly 3,800 faculty and provosts nationwide in over 750 higher education institutions that addressed the ways faculty participate in governance, the degree and effectiveness of that participation, and faculty attitudes toward it. The report first describes the survey sample and response rate. Next, it presents survey results on the venues for faculty participation, the areas in which faculty have the strongest influence, the nature of faculty authority, attitudes toward shared governance, and the effectiveness of specific venues for expressing faculty views. Finally, it summarizes the main findings and discusses their implications for improving institutional governance. (Contains 10 tables and 2 figures.)

This document discusses the American sport baseball as a metaphor to help describe a way to measure, comprehend and visualize student progression through the American community college. This analysis is based on data from the Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS) study. TRUCCS is a longitudinal study of 5,000 community college students from the nine campuses of the Los Angeles Community College District. The study used a 47-item questionnaire on the community college experience. The questionnaire was administered during the Spring 2001 semester to 5,000 students across 241 classrooms. Complete transcripts were also collected as part of the study. Of the total TRUCCS sample, 66% (n=3,318) indicated an intention to transfer. Results indicated that only about half of the students had made any progress towards transferring. Discusses some possible reasons for students not progressing in their transfer efforts. The study finds that it typically takes 9.5 semesters for students to become transfer ready, thus providing evidence against the notion of a "two year" college. It analyzes differences in groups based on gender, ethnicity, age, and native language. Appendix A contains a list of the kinds classes that fulfill the partial completion of transfer requirements as specified by the Intersegmental General Education Transfer Curriculum (IGETC) in California. (Contains 6 tables and 15 references.) (JS)

California's population is expected to grow from 33.9 million in 2000 to 45 million by 2020. In addition, Latinos are expected to outnumber Caucasians by the year 2020. In Los Angeles County, the Latino population is already 45%, compared with 31% Caucasian, 13% Asian, 9% African American, and 1% other. This manuscript offers a new model of course completion for urban community college students who declare Hispanic/Latino as their ethnic group. It is based on an earlier model that included all the students in the Los Angeles Community College District (LACCD). Hispanics lead all other ethnic groups with the percentage of 16-24 year olds who have dropped out of school, have historically been the lowest group in terms of SAT scores, and are least likely to go to college. California's community colleges represent a pivotal point of access for Latino students. This study utilized the Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS) questionnaire, administering the final instrument during the spring 2000 semester to 5,000 students in 241 classrooms in 9 colleges in the LACCD. Ninety-six percent of the sample signed release forms. Of those 4,433, 2,461 reported their ethnicity as Latino/Hispanic. The results indicate that the only credible effects on course completion or GPA were age and academic attitude. (Contains 53 references.) (Author/NB)

This is a report on the Los Angeles Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS) Project, which tracks approximately 5,000 community college students from nine campuses of the Los Angeles Community College District in order to gather information on retention and persistence. The project also investigates urban community college student patterns of reverse transfer, remediation, and social integration. The report indicates that the student ethnic and age diversity in the TRUCCS project reflects the total ethnic and age diversity of the Los Angeles Community College District, with Hispanic and African-American students representing a majority of the total enrollment. The report also shows that many students in the TRUCCS program had good grades in high school, so there were other reasons why these students had to start at community colleges. Approximately 88% of the TRUCCS students aspired to earn a bachelor's degree or higher, and only 22% defined themselves as being "only a student." Most TRUCCS students are employed full- or part-time, and approximately 15% indicated that they were also parents. Future findings of the project may assist policymakers in making changes to better help these students reach their educational goals. (MKF)

The feasibility and validity of using a computer-based networked collaborative knowledge mapping system to measure teamwork skills was examined. Student groups (10 groups of 3 ninth graders each) were assessed with the system twice in the academic year, once in the fall and once the following spring. The study focused on the nature of the interaction among team members as they jointly constructed a knowledge map. Each student was randomly assigned to a team and communicated (anonymously) with other members by sending predefined messages. Teamwork processes were measured by examining message usage. Each message was categorized as belonging to one of six team processes: (1) adaptability; (2) communication; (3) coordination; (4) decision making; (5) interpersonal; and (6) leadership. Team performance was measured by scoring each team's knowledge map using four expert maps as the criterion. No significant correlation was found between team processes and team outcomes. This unexpected finding may be due in part to a split-attention effect resulting from the design of the user interface. However, student teams were able to construct knowledge maps successfully, suggesting that the general approach to using networked computers to measure group processes remains viable. Two appendixes contain messages grouped by category and message content and the handout describing messages. (Contains 17 tables and 21 references.) (Author/SLD)

This document presents findings of the Assessment of School-Based Management Study, which identified the conditions in schools that promote high performance through school-based management (SBM). The study's conceptual framework was based on Edward E. Lawler's (1986) model. The high-involvement framework posits that four resources must spread throughout the organization: power to make or influence decisions; information upon which good decisions can be made; knowledge and skills to perform effectively including good decision-making and problem-solving skills; and rewards for performance. This volume contains four sections: Section 1 includes an executive summary for the study; section 2 presents a summary review of the SBM literature; section 3 presents an overview of study aims and study questions; and section 4 contains a series of articles that draw on cross-site analyses from the two phases of the study. The study found that SBM requires a redesign of the whole school organization rather than a change in school governance. SBM fails when it is adopted as an end in itself; principals work from their own agenda; decision-making power is centered in a single council; and business continues as usual. Strategies for successful implementation of SBM include: (1) establish multiple teacher-led decision-making teams; (2) focus on continuous improvement with school-wide training in functional and process skills, including training in curricular and instructional areas; (3) create a well-developed system for sharing school-related information among a broad range of constituents; (4) develop ways to more effectively reward staff behaviors oriented toward achieving school objectives; (5) select principals who can facilitate and manage change; and (6) use district, state, and/or national guidelines to focus reform efforts and to target changes in curriculum and instruction. Data were obtained from a review of the literature and from over 500 interviews conducted in 44 schools in 13 school districts. Three tables are included. An annotated bibliography is included. (Contains 20 references.) (LMI)

This survey was designed to elicit the perceptions of the members of the educational community on four issues concerning the NII (National Information Infrastructure), and to test whether these visions of the NII were shared by educators. The issues were: (1) the benefits of the NII to the education sector and specifically whether the NII will be able to address the problems in education; (2) impediments to the NII being implemented in schools; (3) incentives necessary to advance the implementation of NII in schools; and (4) roles of the government and the private sector in implementing NII in schools. Respondents were 3,145 members from the following organizations: American Association of School Librarians (AASL); Institute for the Transfer of Technology to Education; National School Boards Association (NSBA); National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP); National Rural Education Association (NREA); National Education Association (NEA); Council of Great City Schools (CGCS); and Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). A majority of respondents felt that the lack of funds (95%), lack of literacy skills of students (86%), lack of parental supervisors (95%), lack of student motivation and a societal lack of respect for teachers (90%) were serious or very serious problems. Although an average of 88% of the respondents viewed the NII as having a beneficial or very beneficial effect on the general educational environment, the majority of respondents were pessimistic of the NII's ability to alleviate many of the problems in the education sector. Respondents agreed, however, that the implementation of the NII in schools would lead to a beneficial revision in curriculum content (74%), increased computer skills for students (88%), increased student motivation (64%), greater opportunities for students for independent investigation and research (89%) and increased access to information for educators (87%). Arguing against either the government or the private sector solely investing in and building the NII, a large majority of respondents suggested a collaborative effort among federal and state governments, the local community, and the education sector in the development of a vision for the implementation of the NII in schools. Twenty-eight figures and 44 tables illustrate the data. Two appendices provide demographics and the survey questionnaire. (MAS)

This document describes the methodology used to carry out the Assessment of School-Based Management Study, which identified the conditions in schools that promote high performance through school-based management (SBM). The 3-year project, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), began in 1991. A literature review was conducted during the first year, case-study field research was conducted during the second year, and cross-site analysis was undertaken during year three. The first phase of data collection examined how SBM, when combined with ambitious curriculum and instruction reform, could work to improve the performance of school organizations. The conceptual framework was based on Lawler's high-involvement model (1986), which focuses on increasing employee involvement in organizational decision making. The case studies sought to discover whether the high-involvement model differentiated between schools that were struggling with SBM and those that were successful with SBM. Case studies examined a total of 27 schools from 5 school districts--3 in the United States, 1 in Canada, and 1 in Australia. An average of 7 interviews were conducted per site for a total of 189 school-level interviews with the principal and assistant principal, governance council members, the union representative, a resource specialist, and teachers. A total of 47 district-level interviews were conducted with district administrators and school board members. Cross-site analysis examined data from 17 schools from 8 school districts (7 in the United States and 1 in Australia). Methods included onsite visits; observations and surveys of teachers; analysis of archival data; and a total of 303 interviews with the principal, governance council members, the union representative, department heads, teachers involved in innovative practices, and teachers not involved in innovative practices. Five tables are included. (Contains 8 references and a bibliography of 19 items.) (LMI)

A conceptual framework is developed for analyzing the costs of alternative assessment instruments. The framework will be used in future analyses by the Center for the Study of Evaluation to determine the costs of alternative assessment programs in a number of states. It is important that a distinction be made between costs and expenditures. Costs are seen as a measure of benefits foregone to realize some outcome or benefit, and expenditures are a measure of resource flow regardless of their consequence. With this distinction in mind, the paper goes into the specifics of developing a cost analysis for alternative assessment. The first step is to identify the expenditures necessary to operate the assessment program. Since the expenditure estimate alone may not reflect total costs, other complex cost considerations must be resolved, such as the value of personnel time. Determining the value of opportunity costs will improve the quality of educational cost analyses dramatically. Two figures illustrate the discussion. (Contains 10 references.) (SLD)

A national survey of desktop computing in higher education was conducted in spring and summer 1993 at over 2500 institutions. Data were responses from public and private research universities, public and private four-year colleges and community colleges. Respondents (N=1011) were individuals specifically responsible for the operation and future direction of academic computing on their campuses. Among key findings were: (1) institutions appear to want software and information technology resources to support instruction primarily software developed by outside sources; (2) nearly half of institutions provide some assistance to help faculty develop technology-based instructional resources but only 15 percent reward or provide incentive to faculty who do develop software; (3) the proportion of campuses reporting budget cuts in computing activities continues to decline from 31 percent in 1992 and 36 percent in 1991 to 28 percent in 1993; (4) there has been a clear shift to '486-based systems in the IBM/compatible domain; (5) expanding campus computing networks remains a top institutional priority; and (6) the proportion of students and faculty who own computers continues to rise slowly across all sectors. Also included are the survey data and appendixes detailing study methodology, the survey form, and a list of participating institutions. (JB)

Texas school-finance reforms implemented in response to the 1989 Edgewood Independent School District v. Kirby state supreme court ruling have impacted school districts differently. A study of four school districts, two poor and two wealthy, examined how these districts responded to changes in the school-finance system and the state's educational reform efforts. In terms of finance, poor districts have benefited tremendously from the equalization component of the new school-finance system. One of the districts studied received more than $11 million in new funds in 1991-92, or nearly $1,000 per student in additional funds. However, per student expenditures have remained virtually constant in the wealthiest district, despite a property tax rate increase. Three of the four districts gave teachers pay increases of about 6 percent. Teachers in the wealthiest district received no salary increase for 1991-92. In the poorest district, more than half of the new funds were used for one-time expenditures. The other poor district increased teacher salaries and improved staff development. All four districts took steps to implement site-based management as mandated by the state. However, finance reforms have hindered wealthy districts' ability to institute programmatic reforms, while poor districts lack the institutional framework to do so due to years of low funding. (JPT)

A national survey of desktop computing in higher education was conducted in 1992 of 2500 institutions. Data were responses from public and private research universities, public and private four-year colleges, and community colleges. Respondents (N=970) were individuals specifically responsible for the operation and future direction of academic computing on their campuses. Among key findings were (1) 31 percent of campuses reported a decline in overall academic computing budgets for 1992-93 and 25.1 percent reported a mid-year budget cut; (2) there was a clear movement towards generic '386 and '486 systems among campuses that recommend IBM compatible products and the proportion of campuses encouraging campus buyers to purchase '486 systems tripled from the previous year; (3) MS-DOS retained its position as leading operating system for desktop computers on campuses; (4) expanding the campus computer network continued to be a top institutional priority; (5) 59.9 percent of campuses have a code of conduct for software use and duplication and another 21.5 percent have a code of conduct under development; and (6) there was an increase in the proportion of students who own personal computers: up to 20.5 percent from 16.5 percent 2 years ago. Also included are the survey data and appendixes with study methodology, the survey form, and a list of participating institutions. (JB)

A national analysis of survey information on educational expenditures marks the first time such a study has been done at the school-district level rather than the state level. Data on more than 4,000 school districts were derived from the National Center for Education Statistics 1987-88 Schools and Staffing Survey and the U.S. Census Bureau's report on school district expenditures. The findings indicate that substantial disparities exist in expenditures across school districts, and that the standard school-finance measures of dispersion indicate that the national variation exceeds the variation found in most, if not all, of the states. The analysis also shows that higher spending districts exhibit lower pupil-teacher ratios. Rural school districts have the lowest pupil-teacher ratio, followed by the suburbs of cities with a population of more than 500,000. In general, the larger the city, the lower the pupil-teacher ratio for both the city and its suburbs. More importantly, the findings show considerable differences in the propensity of school districts to spend additional funds on teacher resources. On average, a 10 percent average increase in district spending leads to a 5 percent increase in spending for smaller classes and higher teacher salaries. (JPT)

A study employing a traditional equity framework was used to calculate the equity of Texas' school-finance structure. Horizontal and vertical equity as well as fiscal neutrality are used as principles in the study. Data on school-district enrollments, tax assessments, and state revenues from the Resource Planning Office of the Texas Education Agency were used in the study. Results show reductions in revenue apportioned across districts because of the failure of the state to meet all of its funding commitments in 1991-92. Consequently, there is a significant deterioration in the equity of revenue distribution to school districts. Overall, except for a small number of districts and an even smaller number of students, Texas' school-finance structure is highly equitable. In conclusion, the school finance system established in Texas in response to state supreme court rulings in Edgewood Independent School District v. Kirby is the most equitable in the nation. The problem the state faces is how to fully fund the system that has been established, and without adequate funding, how to most equitably distribute the funds that are available. Even if such a mechanism can be established, there is no guarantee that the state can afford to fully implement the plan. (Contains 12 references.) (JPT)

The University of Southern California's gerontology faculty development program sought to enhance gerontology programs by preparing two to three faculty members from each of several college campuses in Southern California to become core committees that would facilitate an organized sequence of gerontology instruction within their institutions. All the objectives pursued by the project were achieved. Faculty members developed their expertise in gerontology, created or modified courses with gerontology content, identified and developed community resources, and developed ongoing inter-institutional relationships with peers. The 12 participants who completed the program became able to influence policy within their communities, to provide local and state government officials with authoritative information about general aging issues and about ethnic and health issues specific to Southern California elderly, and to shape the type of personnel and delivery systems that can meet the particular needs of the community's elderly, through establishment of formal education programs. The model is transferable to other regions of the country. This final report outlines the project's objectives, rationale, and results and presents the model of gerontology faculty development. Appendices include course outlines, syllabi, schedules, reading lists, and assessment instruments used for the program. Two references. (LPT)

The National Survey of Desktop Computer Use in Higher Education was conducted in the spring and summer of 1990 by the Center for Scholarly Technology at the University of Southern California, in cooperation with EDUCOM and with support from 15 corporate sponsors. The survey was designed to collect information about campus planning, policies, and procedures affecting the use of desktop computers (i.e., personal computers and workstations) from colleges and universities in the United States including Alaska and Hawaii. Information elicited included general campus policies about desktop computing; current microcomputer and desktop computer facilities; hardware acquisition policies and procedures; software utilization issues; academic and instructional computing policies and procedures; future issues affecting campus computing; strategic planning issues; libraries and computers; networking; computing for disabled students; vendor assessment; and organization of campus computing and technology units. Questionnaires were mailed to some 2,500 campuses in May 1990; responses were received from 1,148 campuses (45.8%) by the closing date for data analysis. Data presented in this report are based on the responses from public and private research universities, public and private four-year colleges, and community colleges. (Survey results for private two-year campuses are not included because of the very small number of responses.) Survey respondents were individuals responsible for the operation and future direction of academic computing on their campuses. The report provides a narrative summary of the survey results, including the ratio of students to computers overall (46 students per machine) and also the ratios in the different types of schools; technology as an instructional resource; computing policies in the curriculum; resale activities; codes of conduct; hardware and operating systems; networking; and maintaining the infrastructure. Survey data are then presented in tabular format. Three appendices provide a description of the survey methodology; a copy of the 56-item survey instrument; and a list of participating institutions. (DB)

Previous research on intelligence and aging has relied on tests developed for younger adults, which often incorporate many factors that could impede optimal performance in elderly populations. To investigate short-term longitudinal changes in memory, intelligence, and perceived competence in everyday situations among older adults, 227 adults were tested. Seventy-four subjects were middle-aged (55-64, MA), 95 were young-old (65-74, YO), and 58 were old-old (75-84, OO) They completed the Adult Mental Abilities test battery, three word-list tasks and a paragraph task, and the Q-Sort (Scheidt and Schaie, 1978). The tests were administered twice, with a 3-year interval. An analysis of the results showed that in general the MA group scored highest on all measures, while the OO group scored lowest. Sex differences were found for the three word-list tasks, with women remembering more than men. For the spatial tests, men performed better than women. For the time of measurement effects, scores for immediate and delayed recall were significantly higher in the second administration, while word series skills decreased over the time span. Recognizing vocabulary decreased with time for the YO group. Spatial test performance increased over time for the MA group and decreased for the OO group. The YO group performance decreased significantly only for object rotation. For the social dimension, perceived competence increased across all age groups. The MA group rated themselves as active and uncommon, while the OO group rated themselves as passive and common. Women rated themselves as more competent than men in social, common, and supportive situations; men rated themselves as more competent than women in nonsocial, uncommon, and depriving situations. Overall, perceived competence correlated with changes in memory and intellectual abilities. (BL)

The social learning approach to marital and family therapy emphasizes the importance of clients' compliance with homework assignments to treatment progress. To investigate the relationship between clients' homework compliance and therapists' and clients' behaviors during therapy sessions and clients' intrasession tension and satisfaction, the marital and family therapy sessions of 24 nuclear families were audiotaped for a 10 week-period. Tapes were analyzed for therapist behaviors (clarification, interpretation, relationship emphasis, education, encouragement of affective expression, control, encouragement of specificity and clarity, and style) and client behaviors (emergency and welfare emotions, task orientation, blame, mutuality, clarity and specificity, and tone of communication). Therapists kept records of homework completion and carried out midweek telephone interviews to assess family tension and satisfaction. An analysis of the results showed that several therapist and client session behaviors correlated with homework completion in the beginning phase of treatment. Homework completion was positively correlated with therapist educational behaviors and negatively correlated with clients' expressions of anger, stress, and blame. Although marital tension negatively correlated with homework completion in the beginning phase, in the middle phase homework completion and marital tension were postively correlated, suggesting that a certain amount of tension is needed to maintain motivation. (BL)

Research was undertaken to develop an experimental computer-based training system and to conduct a number of experiments in dynamic skill training using the system. (Training for such tasks is distinguished from the teaching of fact systems, the training domain most heavily studied in CAI applications.) Based on the hypothesis that the attentional demands of dynamic skill simulation training require that special instructional techniques be used for training to be effective, several dynamic skill tasks were studied, and a laboratory analog to the Air Intercept Controller task was developed for experimental use. One set of experiments tested different approaches to giving the student information about performance during training, while a second set of experiments focused on the problems and potentials of the use of voice input and voice output technologies in computer-based training. The results showed that intrusive instruction is less effective for such simulation training than is non-intrusive instruction, and that current low-cost technologies for voice input/output are aproaching the acceptability threshold for this type of application. Eight references are listed. (Author/LMM)

This final report reviews research performed in two major areas--instructional theory, and development of a generalized maintenance trainer simulator. Five related research projects were carried out in the domain of instructional theory: (1) the effects of visual analogies of abstract concepts, (2) Markov decision models for instructional sequence optimization, (3) electrophysiological correlates of cognitive processing, (4) cognitive strategies for text processing, and (5) heuristic techniques for logical problem solution. Work on the development of the maintenance trainer simulator included tests of the system in naval training environments and led to a project to further develop the system for regular use in Navy Schools. A list of references includes citations for 14 technical reports, seven chapters in books or articles in journals, and nine papers for professional meetings. (Author/JEG)

Over a two-year period, research was conducted primarily in two areas of cognitive strategies for on-the-job training (OJT). The first area was the development and testing of a computer-based training system to improve selectivity in text processing in order to improve performance during OJT. The second area was the exploration of text-type effects on learning from text. Preliminary results from this research suggest that learning from text may be measurably improved through the application of text processing techniques appropriate to the type of text being read. In addition to producing computer programs for training in selective text processing, the research staff also produced four technical reports, two chapters in books, and three papers for professional meetings. (Author/CSS)

Psychological approaches to the troubleshooting of complex military equipments are designed to improve the selection, motivation, and training of technicians. Methods for enhancing the understanding of the physical relations in equipment, the hierarchical analysis and practice of sub-skills, and the general logic of searching behavior are aspects considered. The "aiding" approach provides technicians with an information base in special booklets, diagrams, computer programs, and directed sequences. The "maintainability" approach concentrates on designing equipments for troubleshooting ease. When these approaches are applied to troubleshooting problems, the great majority can be solved. For troubleshooting equipments already in service, proceduralized aiding is probably the best for immediate solutions, especially for many one term military technicians. Aids must be designed from a behavioral standpoint and be specially prepared, tested, and debugged. The most effective aids, however, will not find all troubles, and people with relatively deep skill levels will always be required. To provide such people, research is needed in the visualization and memory of complex physical events, the learning of long branching sequences, individual differences in search behavior, and enhancement of human reasoning by small computerized devices. (Author/RAA)

A self directed learning system was developed, based on an earlier version of a computer based system; this revised system contains features designed to make it easier to use and improved pedagogical strategies. The experimental test described in this report was designed to separate the effects of training in self directed learning from the use of the system itself. Data were collected on four different measures of learning: (1) effective learning, (2) selective learning, (3) planning, and (4) verbal report. Results of the experiment indicated that there were no significant differences among treatment groups in performance data even though one of the experimental groups outperformed the other groups significantly on the measure of verbal report, and on all other measures as well. (Author/JEG)

Two experiments were conducted to establish the psychological validity of the text type distinction. In the first, 20 college students sorted 12 texts on the basis of their similarities. The resultant sortings were subjected to a clustering analysis. Despite the fact that other bases for grouping texts existed--a number of pairs of semantically related texts of different types were included--text type emerged as a powerful determiner of group membership. In the second experiment, 13 students listened to recorded texts and then tried to recall them. As was predicted, text type had a significant effect on recall, with stories being recalled more fully than were instructions or definitions. (Three sample texts used in the experiments, together with their text structures and semantic representations, are contained in an appendix.) (Author/FL)

The University of Southern California (USC) Library School offered an experimental self-paced, independent learning program during the 1976-1977 academic year to help those students who desire this type of professional training but are unable to attend classes on a daily or semi-weekly basis in the traditional pattern of scheduling. Program objectives included allowing students to pursue a degree or continuing education program under circumstances convenient to them, researching and evaluating the independent study curriculum as compared with the regular traditional program, and producing not "finished" graduates but life-long learners. Six courses were offered in several time frames: late afternoon, evening, and Saturday. For each course, faculty members developed supplementary enrichment materials, course outlines, modules, and study guides. Student evaluation consisted of refined pretests developed for each of the three types of classes, periodic tests and examinations, and post-tests. Findings indicate that the program was successful because all of the students increased their scores between the pre- and post-tests, self-paced students' performance was generally equal to that of students in the regular program, and they tended to have fewer incompletes. Recommendations and suggestions for future programs are included. (JPF)

It is proposed in this report that theories about reading processes and about the structure of what is read can be readily formulated in schema theory terms. Previous work on the structure of texts is first reviewed and problems with earlier formalisms and scoring methods are discussed. Analyses are then presented of the structure of three types of texts--short stories, instructions, and explanations--and three experiments are described in which differences in readers' recall of the different text types were assessed. In experiment one, 22 college students read and summarized six texts of different types and later recalled three of them; in experiments two and three, students heard tape-recorded texts, one at a time, performed a brief interfering task after each text, and then recalled the text. Results of the experiments, which are reported and discussed, revealed that stories were the easiest, and definitions the most difficult, to recall and understand, and that recalls of definitions showed significantly more reordering than did recalls of instructions, which, in turn, had more reordering than did the recalls of stories. Forty-one illustrative figures and eight tables of results are included. (GW)

This study explores the extent to which scores on four separate complex reasoning solution processes could predict performance on difficult problems. Definitions are provided for the four processes--intra-sentence processing, inter-sentence processing, ordering, and collecting--and previous work done in the field is outlined. The procedures used in obtaining scores for the four processes and the results of the initial experiment are discussed. The description of a training demonstration, designed to teach the skills needed in complex problem solving, includes the results of this exercise. A discussion of the success of the training procedure, a list of references, and typical sentence-inference sheets are also provided. (RAO)