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Objective: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of percutaneous transhepatic endoscopic holmium laser lithotripsy (PTEHL) for patients with intrahepatic bile duct (IHBD) and common bile duct (CBD) stones. Material and methods: This retrospective study included 530 patients (mean age: 55.6 ± 8.5; 64.2% female) with IHBD and/or CBD stones at a single institution from January 2019 to December 2021. PTEHL was the chosen treatment for patients with large, complex stones, or those for whom Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) failed or presented difficulties. Patients showing signs of cholangitis required pre-PTEHL drainage. Stone clearance was confirmed by post-procedural cholangiography, and the technique was deemed successful when target stones were removed. Complications were recorded according to the Society of Interventional Radiology adverse event classification. Results: The mean stone size was 20.9 ± 11.9 mm, multiple stones observed in 460 patients (86.8%). A total of 225 patients (42.5%) had stones in both the IHBD and CBD; biliary-enteric anastomosis in 50 patients (9.4%). ERCP for stone removal proved unsuccessful in 18 patients (3.4%). Pre-IHBD drainage was performed in 271 patients (51.1%). The majority (488 patients, 92.1%) underwent a single PTEHL session. The technique was successful in 523 patients (98.7%), with 7 patients requiring surgery due to unsuccessful target stone removal. Complications were noted in 75 patients (14.2%), including 4.7% with severe complications and 9.4% with minor complications. Conclusion: PTEHL is a safe and effective method for the treatment of both intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile duct stones. This approach is a valuable option for complex stone cases, particularly when ERCP is unsuccessful or encounters significant challenges. Clinical relevance statement: Percutaneous Transhepatic Endoscopic Holmium Laser Lithotripsy is a safe and effective treatment method for intrahepatic and extrahepatic biliary stones, particularly in cases of complex stones. Key Points: Percutaneous transhepatic biliary stone removal is difficult for large or intraductal stones. Percutaneous Transhepatic Endoscopic Holmium Laser Lithotripsy (PTEHL) demonstrated a high success rate with few major complications. PTEHL can treat biliary stones, particularly stones that are difficult or have failed ERCP treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To assess the safety and effectiveness of percutaneous transsplenic access (PTSA) for portal vein (PV) interventions among patients with PV disease. Materials and methods: Adult patients with PV disease were enrolled if they required percutaneous catheterization for PV angioplasty, embolization, thrombectomy, variceal embolization, or transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) placement for a difficult TIPS or recanalization of a chronically occluded PV. The procedures were performed between January 2018 and January 2023. Patients were excluded if they had an active infection, had a chronically occluded splenic vein malignant infiltration of the needle tract, had undergone splenectomy, or were under age 18 years. Results: Thirty patients (15 women, 15 men) were enrolled. Catheterization of the PV through PTSA succeeded for 29 of 30 patients (96.7%). The main adverse effect recorded was flank pain in 5 of 30 cases (16.7%). No bleeding events from the spleen, splenic vein, or percutaneous access point were recorded. Two cases (6.7%) each of hepatic bleeding and rethrombosis of the PV were reported, and a change in hemoglobin levels (mean [SD], − 0.5 [1.4] g/dL) was documented in 14 cases (46.7%). Conclusion: PTSA as an approach to accessing the PV is secure and achievable, with minimal risk of complications. Minimal to no bleeding is possible by using tract closure methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Hemodialysis (HD) success is dependent mainly on vascular access (VA). The aim of this study is to share the experience of Pediatric Nephrology Unit (PNU), Cairo University Children’s Hospital (CUCH), with VA-related obstacles in end stage kidney disease (ESKD) HD children. Methods This is a retrospective analysis of VA related data of 187 ESKD children received regular HD over 3 year duration (2019–2021). Kaplan–Meier curves were used to present arteriovenous fistula (AVF) and cuffed catheters survivals. Results Uncuffed central venous catheter (CVC) was the primary VA for HD in up to 97.3% with 2.7% of patients had AVF performed and attained maturation before initiation of regular HD. Fifty-six (29.9%) patients have inserted 120 tunneled CVCs. AVFs & AV grafts (AVF) were performed in 79 (42.2%) and 6 (3.2%) patients respectively. There were 112 uncuffed CVCs implanted beneath the screen in Rt internal jugular vein (IJV) (44%) Lt IJV (17%), right internal mammary vein (2.7%) while Trans hepatic (TH) technique was used to place 39 uncuffed CVCs (34%) in the inferior vena cava (IVC). Catheter-related bacteremia (CRB) was the most frequent complication in uncuffed and cuffed CVCs (2.58 / 100 catheters day and 10.1 /1000 catheter days respectively). AVFs achieved a high success rate (83%) after 757.71 ± 512.3 functioning days. Conclusion Native AVF is the preferred VA for pediatric HD but its creation is limited by the small sized vessels where non-cuffed CVC could be a reasonable relatively long-term alternative. Challenging situations (occluded central veins) could benefit from TH technique of CVC insertion in IVC.

Abstract Background Variation of inferior vena cava (IVC) is used to predict fluid-responsiveness, but the IVC visualization with standard sagittal approach (SC, subcostal) cannot be always achieved. In such cases, coronal trans-hepatic (TH) window may offer an alternative, but the interchangeability of IVC measurements in SC and TH is not fully established. Furthermore, artificial intelligence (AI) with automated border detection may be of clinical value but it needs validation. Methods Prospective observational validation study in mechanically ventilated patients with pressure-controlled mode. Primary outcome was the IVC distensibility (IVC-DI) in SC and TH imaging, with measurements taken both in M-Mode or with AI software. We calculated mean bias, limits of agreement (LoA), and intra-class correlation (ICC) coefficient. Results Thirty-three patients were included. Feasibility rate was 87.9% and 81.8% for SC and TH visualization, respectively. Comparing imaging from the same anatomical site acquired with different modalities (M-Mode vs AI), we found the following IVC-DI differences: (1) SC: mean bias − 3.1%, LoA [− 20.1; 13.9], ICC = 0.65; (2) TH: mean bias − 2.0%, LoA [− 19.3; 15.4], ICC = 0.65. When comparing the results obtained from the same modality but from different sites (SC vs TH), IVC-DI differences were: (3) M-Mode: mean bias 1.1%, LoA [− 6.9; 9.1], ICC = 0.54; (4) AI: mean bias 2.0%, LoA [− 25.7; 29.7], ICC = 0.32. Conclusions In patients mechanically ventilated, AI software shows good accuracy (modest overestimation) and moderate correlation as compared to M-mode assessment of IVC-DI, both for SC and TH windows. However, precision seems suboptimal with wide LoA. The comparison of M-Mode or AI between different sites yields similar results but with weaker correlation. Trial registration Reference protocol: 53/2022/PO, approved on 21/03/2022

Abstract Purpose Assessment of the inferior vena cava (IVC) respiratory variation may be clinically useful for the estimation of fluid-responsiveness and venous congestion; however, imaging from subcostal (SC, sagittal) region is not always feasible. It is unclear if coronal trans-hepatic (TH) IVC imaging provides interchangeable results. The use of artificial intelligence (AI) with automated border tracking may be helpful as part of point-of-care ultrasound but it needs validation. Methods Prospective observational study conducted in spontaneously breathing healthy volunteers with assessment of IVC collapsibility (IVCc) in SC and TH imaging, with measures taken in M-mode or with AI software. We calculated mean bias and limits of agreement (LoA), and the intra-class correlation (ICC) coefficient with their 95% confidence intervals. Results Sixty volunteers were included; IVC was not visualized in five of them (n = 2, both SC and TH windows, 3.3%; n = 3 in TH approach, 5%). Compared with M-mode, AI showed good accuracy both for SC (IVCc: bias − 0.7%, LoA [− 24.9; 23.6]) and TH approach (IVCc: bias 3.7%, LoA [− 14.9; 22.3]). The ICC coefficients showed moderate reliability: 0.57 [0.36; 0.73] in SC, and 0.72 [0.55; 0.83] in TH. Comparing anatomical sites (SC vs TH), results produced by M-mode were not interchangeable (IVCc: bias 13.9%, LoA [− 18.1; 45.8]). When this evaluation was performed with AI, such difference became smaller: IVCc bias 7.7%, LoA [− 19.2; 34.6]. The correlation between SC and TH assessments was poor for M-mode (ICC = 0.08 [− 0.18; 0.34]) while moderate for AI (ICC = 0.69 [0.52; 0.81]). Conclusions The use of AI shows good accuracy when compared with the traditional M-mode IVC assessment, both for SC and TH imaging. Although AI reduces differences between sagittal and coronal IVC measurements, results from these sites are not interchangeable.

Image-guided percutaneous cholecystostomy (IGPC) is a widely recognized and regularly employed procedure in numerous institutions, serving as an indispensable cornerstone in the management of patients with acute cholecystitis. The most up-to-date literature has found that the transperitoneal route is at least as safe as the transhepatic route and that both the trocar and Seldinger techniques are equally safe and effective. The above novel insights may offer reassurance and alleviate concerns among operators performing IGPC by dispelling the fixation on previously established beliefs and thus providing flexibility, which lightens the load on the operator. Future studies could further investigate these findings and shed light on potential disparities in the safety and efficacy profiles associated with the subcostal and intercostal approaches, different drainage catheter sizes, and/or the impact of operator experience on complication rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Variation of inferior vena cava (IVC) is used to predict fluid-responsiveness, but the IVC visualization with standard sagittal approach (SC, subcostal) cannot be always achieved. In such cases, coronal trans-hepatic (TH) window may offer an alternative, but the interchangeability of IVC measurements in SC and TH is not fully established. Furthermore, artificial intelligence (AI) with automated border detection may be of clinical value but it needs validation. Methods: Prospective observational validation study in mechanically ventilated patients with pressure-controlled mode. Primary outcome was the IVC distensibility (IVC-DI) in SC and TH imaging, with measurements taken both in M-Mode or with AI software. We calculated mean bias, limits of agreement (LoA), and intra-class correlation (ICC) coefficient. Results: Thirty-three patients were included. Feasibility rate was 87.9% and 81.8% for SC and TH visualization, respectively. Comparing imaging from the same anatomical site acquired with different modalities (M-Mode vs AI), we found the following IVC-DI differences: (1) SC: mean bias − 3.1%, LoA [− 20.1; 13.9], ICC = 0.65; (2) TH: mean bias − 2.0%, LoA [− 19.3; 15.4], ICC = 0.65. When comparing the results obtained from the same modality but from different sites (SC vs TH), IVC-DI differences were: (3) M-Mode: mean bias 1.1%, LoA [− 6.9; 9.1], ICC = 0.54; (4) AI: mean bias 2.0%, LoA [− 25.7; 29.7], ICC = 0.32. Conclusions: In patients mechanically ventilated, AI software shows good accuracy (modest overestimation) and moderate correlation as compared to M-mode assessment of IVC-DI, both for SC and TH windows. However, precision seems suboptimal with wide LoA. The comparison of M-Mode or AI between different sites yields similar results but with weaker correlation. Trial registration Reference protocol: 53/2022/PO, approved on 21/03/2022 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Assessment of the inferior vena cava (IVC) respiratory variation may be clinically useful for the estimation of fluid-responsiveness and venous congestion; however, imaging from subcostal (SC, sagittal) region is not always feasible. It is unclear if coronal trans-hepatic (TH) IVC imaging provides interchangeable results. The use of artificial intelligence (AI) with automated border tracking may be helpful as part of point-of-care ultrasound but it needs validation. Methods: Prospective observational study conducted in spontaneously breathing healthy volunteers with assessment of IVC collapsibility (IVCc) in SC and TH imaging, with measures taken in M-mode or with AI software. We calculated mean bias and limits of agreement (LoA), and the intra-class correlation (ICC) coefficient with their 95% confidence intervals. Results: Sixty volunteers were included; IVC was not visualized in five of them (n = 2, both SC and TH windows, 3.3%; n = 3 in TH approach, 5%). Compared with M-mode, AI showed good accuracy both for SC (IVCc: bias − 0.7%, LoA [− 24.9; 23.6]) and TH approach (IVCc: bias 3.7%, LoA [− 14.9; 22.3]). The ICC coefficients showed moderate reliability: 0.57 [0.36; 0.73] in SC, and 0.72 [0.55; 0.83] in TH. Comparing anatomical sites (SC vs TH), results produced by M-mode were not interchangeable (IVCc: bias 13.9%, LoA [− 18.1; 45.8]). When this evaluation was performed with AI, such difference became smaller: IVCc bias 7.7%, LoA [− 19.2; 34.6]. The correlation between SC and TH assessments was poor for M-mode (ICC = 0.08 [− 0.18; 0.34]) while moderate for AI (ICC = 0.69 [0.52; 0.81]). Conclusions: The use of AI shows good accuracy when compared with the traditional M-mode IVC assessment, both for SC and TH imaging. Although AI reduces differences between sagittal and coronal IVC measurements, results from these sites are not interchangeable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bedside ultrasonography is a promising noninvasive and rapid technique to assess body fluid status. Early detection of hypovolemia and hypervolemia is crucial to guide management in critically ill patients. There is a considerable demographic variability in the normal range of inferior vena cava dimensions as seen in numerous studies and a steadfast formula to calculate caval diameter based on demographic parameters and body growth is not available till date. Caval aorta diameter index had a positive correlation with invasively measured central venous pressure as established by previous studies done in intensive care units. The simplicity of examination technique makes this index useful in every situation where body fluid status has therapeutic and prognostic implications. This study aims to identify standard normal measurement of caval aorta index by easily available two-dimensional echocardiography in subcostal view and by right coronal approach/transhepatic view in different age groups in Indian patients. Materials and Methods: One hundred and two patients referred for routine cardiac status evaluation who were asymptomatic and clinically normal without any major medical illness with normal echocardiogram were prospectively analyzed and caval aorta index assessed in both subxiphoid and transhepatic right coronal view. Results: Normal caval aorta index measured in subcostal view was 1.108 ± 0.076 and measured in transhepatic view was 1.101 ± 0.082 (mean ± 2 standard deviation). The difference of caval aorta index measured in both views was not significant statistically (P = 0.207). Conclusion: In this study, we provide a normal reference level for sonographic caval aorta index in Indian population measured in subxiphoid and transhepatic views. We also conclude that transhepatic right coronal view measurements for this index are comparable to subcostal view, so both views can be used alternatively when one window is suboptimal.

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT), particularly the presence of portal cavernoma, was traditionally considered a relative contraindication for transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) due to the technical difficulties in accessing and maneuvering the portal vein and avoiding the high risk for bleeding periportal collaterals. However, the last decade has seen a surge in the number of studies—mostly case reports and small series of patients—demonstrating that TIPS is not only technically feasible in the vast majority of these patients but also provides effective and long-term control of symptoms associated with portal hypertension in cases refractory to the standard line of therapy. The present article aims to provide a concise but exhaustive overview of the role and the standard and technically difficult TIPS placement scenarios in patients with chronic non-malignant PVT and with and without underlying liver disease. The review is strategically punctuated by exemplary instances from the authors' experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Percutaneous transhepatic stent-graft placement usually requires more than a 12 F sheath, which has a higher potential risk of peritoneal hemorrhage. A case of postoperative portal vein hemorrhage after pancreaticoduodenectomy treated using a Viabahn VBX balloon expanding stent-graft is described in this report. The stent-graft was delivered using an 8 F sheath through a transhepatic approach and deployed from the superior mesenteric vein to the main portal vein. Hemostasis was achieved and graft patency was confirmed one year after the procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The treatment of lithiasis in patients with biliodigestive bypass can be controversial. The combination of percutaneous access together with cholangioscopy is an alternative to surgical treatment for the management of this pathology. In recent years, the appearance of smaller and more flexible fiber-optic cholangioscopes as well as the possibility to perform lithotripsy have changed the treatment of this pathology, providing good results. After our experience, we believe that cholangioscopy assisted by a percutaneous approach is a safe technique, with few complications and early recovery for patients in whom it is not possible to perform endoscopic management., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U.)

Percutaneous transhepatic variceal obliteration (PTVO) is currently one of the best treatment options for controlling acute recurrent bleeding in cirrhotic patients. Nevertheless, this procedure is associated with major and minor complications such as fever, pain, fatal intraperitoneal hemorrhage, and rarely, embolization of embolic agents to the systemic circulation. Only one study has reported systemic emboli following the use of glue-lipiodal mixture for percutaneous transhepatic embolization of esophageal varices and here we report another case of this complication. Here, we report a 44-year-old man presenting with multi-organ infarction following PTVO with glue-Lipiodol mixture. He was a known case of liver cirrhosis who was admitted for recurrent bleeding from esophageal varices. The patient became a candidate for transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt surgery; however, he did not provide consent for this procedure. the patient eventually decided to undergo PTVO as an alternative option. Twelve hours after the procedure, the patient developed neurological symptoms such as left side weakness, dysarthria, and fecal incontinence. Further investigation showed glue particles in brain, liver, spleen and both lungs. Contrast echocardiography and splenoportography did not show any evidence of right-to-left shunt. Thus, conservative management was initiated for the patient, which resulted in the gradual improvement after three weeks. Prior evaluation with splenoportography and contrast echocardiography before performing PTVO may help in the early detection of any connection with systemic circulation. Also, based on the desired procedure, the most appropriate glue/Lipiodol ratio and injection technique should be selected to minimize the risk of adverse events.

Purpose This article aims to report Australian experience of percutaneous transhepatic embolization of gastroesophageal and ectopic varices. Method Eight consecutive patients (mean age 61.8 years, 7 men) who had undergone percutaneous transhepatic variceal embolization (PTVE) for variceal bleeding between October 2013 and February 2020 were analyzed. All patients were admitted from the emergency department. The following embolic materials were used—coils, Onyx 18 (Medtronic), and n-butyl cyanoacrylate plus lipiodol. Results Post-PTVE, all eight patients demonstrated clinical and radiological improvement in the immediate postprocedure period (< 24 hours). Patients were followed for a mean of 44 ± 24 days postprocedure. Two patients were lost to follow-up. The postprocedure complications included rebleeding (n = 1), hepatic encephalopathy (n = 1), hemoperitoneum (n = 1), ileus (n = 1), and abdominal pain (n = 3). Conclusion PTVE is an effective treatment option for patients with uncontrolled variceal bleeding (ectopic as well as gastroesophageal) especially when the traditional therapies such as transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts, endoscopic variceal ligation, and balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration are contraindicated or ineffective.

Interruption of the inferior vena cava with azygos continuation is a rare congenital anomaly. This anomaly becomes clinically important during cardiac interventions.

Portal vein thrombosis (PVT), particularly the presence of portal cavernoma, was traditionally considered a relative contraindication for transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) due to the technical difficulties in accessing and maneuvering the portal vein and avoiding the high risk for bleeding periportal collaterals. However, the last decade has seen a surge in the number of studies—mostly case reports and small series of patients—demonstrating that TIPS is not only technically feasible in the vast majority of these patients but also provides effective and long-term control of symptoms associated with portal hypertension in cases refractory to the standard line of therapy. The present article aims to provide a concise but exhaustive overview of the role and the standard and technically difficult TIPS placement scenarios in patients with chronic non-malignant PVT and with and without underlying liver disease. The review is strategically punctuated by exemplary instances from the authors’ experience.

Point-of-care ultrasound can be used at the bedside to assess the haemodynamic status and fluid responsiveness of a pregnant woman. Previous studies demonstrated that views from the apical and parasternal windows are readily obtainable in labouring women. However, using the subcostal window to assess the inferior vena cava can be challenging because of the gravid uterus. A potential alternative is the right upper quadrant transhepatic window. We sought to compare visualisation of the inferior vena cava via the subcostal and right upper quadrant windows, in full-term pregnant women. This was a prospective pilot study carried out in a tertiary academic obstetric centre. Thirty pregnant non-labouring women at full term were recruited. In each patient, the inferior vena cava was visualised through both the subcostal and the right upper quadrant windows. Time to acquire each image, acquisition success rates and ease of obtaining images were compared for both approaches. Image quality was then reviewed and rated by two independent expert reviewers. There was a significant difference in the time required to obtain each view; subcostal median (interquartile range): 52 (35-59) seconds, right upper quadrant median (interquartile range): 23 (11-55) seconds (P=0.0045). Operator-defined successful image acquisition was 100% for the right upper quadrant window compared to 80% for the subcostal window. Ease of obtaining the view, as rated by the operator, was significantly easier in the right upper quadrant window compared to the subcostal window (P <0.0001). Both reviewers independently rated image adequacy to be significantly greater in the right upper quadrant window (73% and 57%) compared to the subcostal window (40% and 10%) (P=0.0213 and P=0.0005, respectively). Inter-rater agreement ranged between good (Cohen's kappa coefficient 0.64) for right upper quadrant windows to fair (Cohen's kappa coefficient 0.29) for subcostal windows. Inferior vena cava visualisation in term pregnant patients may take less time, be easier and provide better quality images when the right upper quadrant window is used compared to the subcostal window. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Percutaneous cholecystostomy is performed by interventional radiologists for patients with calculous/acalculous cholecystitis who are poor candidates for cholecystectomy. Two anatomical approaches are widely utilized: transperitoneal and transhepatic. Purpose: To compare the clinical outcomes of transperitoneal and transhepatic approaches to cholecystostomy catheter placement. Material and Methods: From December 2007 to August 2015, 165 consecutive patients (97 men, 68 women) underwent either transperitoneal (n = 89) or transhepatic (n = 76) cholecystostomy at a single center. Indications were calculous cholecystitis (n = 21), acalculous cholecystitis (n = 35), hydrops (n = 1), gangrenous cholecystitis (n = 1), and other cholecystitis (n = 107). The most common high-risk co-morbidities were sepsis (n = 53) and cardiac (n = 11). Outcomes were compared using univariate and multivariable analysis. Results: Post-procedure outcomes included tube dislodgement (transperitoneal [n = 6] and transhepatic [n = 3], P = 0.44), bile leak (transperitoneal [n = 5], transhepatic [n = 1], P = 0.14), gallbladder hemorrhage (transperitoneal [n = 2]; transhepatic [n = 3], P = 0.52), duodenal fistula (transperitoneal [n = 0], transhepatic [n = 1], P = 0.27), repeat cholecystostomy (transperitoneal [n = 1], transhepatic [n = 3], P = 0.27), and repeat cholecystitis requiring separate admission (transperitoneal [n = 6], transhepatic [n = 10], P = 0.15). All complications were Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events grade <3. Twenty transperitoneal patients underwent post-procedure cholecystectomy: 13 laparoscopic, three open, and four unclear/outside records. The mean time from cholecystostomy to operation was 38 days (range 3–211 days). Twenty-three transhepatic patients underwent cholecystectomy: 14 laparoscopic, eight open, and one unclear/outside records, with the mean time from cholecystostomy being 98 days (range 0–1053 days). One transhepatic and three transperitoneal patients died during admission. Conclusion: There were no significant differences in short-term complications after transperitoneal and transhepatic approaches to percutaneous cholecystostomy catheter placement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage is a procedure commonly used in malign and benign biliary pathologies. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness, complication rates and results of percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage. Materials and Methods: 49 patients, to whom percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage was performed due to different malignant and benign pathologies between April 2018 and April 2020 in the interventional radiology department of our hospital, were included in the study. 26 of the patients were male, and 23 were female. The ages of the patients ranged between 8 and 87, and the mean age was 62.18±15.8. External drainage catheter was inserted in 11 patients, and internal-external drainage catheter in 38 patients. Metallic stent was inserted in two patients. The efficiency of the procedures was evaluated according to the comparison of preprocedural and postprocedural direct and total bilirubin values and the improvement in clinical findings. Procedure-related early and late complications were obtained. Results: Technical success was achieved in all patients who underwent percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage. The preprocedural and postprocedural total bilirubin median values were 16.2 mg/dl (0.6-30.5) and 6.3 mg/dl (0.7- 26.9), respectively. The preprocedural and postprocedural direct bilirubin median values were 11.9 mg/dl (0.3-15) and 4.3 mg/dl (0.2-15), respectively. The decrease in the total and direct bilirubin values was found to be significant (p<0.001). Major and minor complications developed in 13 patients in the early and late stages. Conclusions: Percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage is an efficient method in decompression of malignant biliary obstructions, palliation of the disease and treatment of benign biliary pathologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To report a case of delayed splenic rupture after percutaneous transsplenic portal vein stent deployment. Case Report: A 72-year-old male patient presented at a medical center with abdominal pain and reduced liver function according to laboratory tests. Due to a history of right hemihepatectomy and left portal vein occlusion, the percutaneous transhepatic approach was considered inappropriate. Instead, percutaneous transsplenic access was selected as a suitable procedure for portal vein catheterization. Eight days following the procedure, the patient developed abdominal pain, and a computed tomography scan showed a small splenic pseudoaneurysm that was underappreciated at the time. Patient suffered acute splenic rupture 32 days post-procedure. Subsequent embolization was performed, achieving complete hemostasis. Conclusion: The transsplenic approach should be considered when the transhepatic or transjugular approach is unfeasible or difficult to implement. A careful plugging of the puncture tract is necessary to prevent or minimize hemorrhage from the splenic access tract. In addition, careful serial follow-up computed tomography should be used to evaluate the splenic puncture tract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interruption of the inferior vena cava with azygos continuation is a rare congenital anomaly. This anomaly becomes clinically important during cardiac interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We aimed to compare the technical difficulties, complications, long-term efficacy, and risks between right- and left-sided approach transhepatic tunneled catheterization.Methods: We retrospectively evaluated transhepatic tunneled catheter placement cases in our institution between May 2012 and November 2019. Demographic and procedural parameters were recorded. Statistical tests were used to compare the complication rates of right- and left-sided approach. Furthermore, Cox regression analyses were used to investigate the relationship between functional catheter days and included parameters.Results: A total of 83 procedures were performed in 46 patients, with a female to male ratio of 1.88 and a mean age of 55.5 ± 18.2 years. Indication for catheter placement was chronic renal insufficiency and loss of central venous access through traditional routes in all cases. Median functional catheter durations were 28 days (1-382) and 55.5 days (1-780) for right-sided and left-sided access, respectively. Complication rates were similar for both sides. There was no difference between primary and revision procedures in terms of safety and efficacy outcomes. In univariate Cox regression analysis, gender was the only variable which was found to be statistically significant (HR = 2.014 (1.004-4.038)) for functional catheter days. In multivariate Cox regression model, gender and access side were included which failed to reach statistical significance.Conclusions: In our study, both right- and left-sided approaches provided similar safety and efficacy outcomes, suggesting that both techniques can be employed based on physician's preference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/aim: Pseudomyxoma peritonei (PMP) is a rare condition characterized by diffuse spread of mucinous tumors within the peritoneal cavity. Traditional treatment modalities, such as cytoreductive surgery (CRS) and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) are challenging in cases of recurrent disease, owing to anatomical complexities and increasing morbidity and mortality risk. BromAc ® has emerged as a novel, targeted therapy for PMP with evidence for intra-tumoral administration to break down mucin deposits., Case Report: We present a 70-year-old female with confirmed diagnosis of symptomatic appendiceal PMP situated behind the stomach, refractory to prior CRS and HIPEC. Transhepatic intra-tumor injection of BromAc ® was performed, guided by imaging, with catheter placement into the posterior gastric mucinous tumor. The procedure was well-tolerated, and post-treatment imaging revealed a significant 40% reduction in tumor burden. The patient had fever on cycle days two and three, which self-resolved and septic screen performed was negative. Following BromAc ® administration, the patient demonstrated improvement in symptoms and quality of life., Conclusion: This case highlights the potential efficacy and safety of transhepatic administration of BromAc ® for the treatment of recurrent PMP behind the stomach. The targeted delivery of BromAc ® directly into a mucinous tumor via the transhepatic route offers a minimally invasive alternative for cases where traditional surgical interventions pose challenges. However, further research and clinical trials are warranted to validate the broader applicability of this novel approach, assess long-term outcomes, and optimize procedural parameters for enhanced therapeutic outcomes in PMP treatment., (Copyright © 2024 International Institute of Anticancer Research (Dr. George J. Delinasios), All rights reserved.)

The treatment options for malignant gastric outlet obstruction include antegrade stent placement or surgical bypass, the latter being associated with a higher level of morbidity and therefore often reserved for cases in which stenting is not technically possible. Antegrade stent placement can be endoscopic, fluoroscopic or a combination. We report a case in which standard antegrade attempts at stenting failed, but where it was possible to use a retrograde approach via the biliary tree to facilitate technically and clinically successful stent placement.

We report a case of gastric variceal hemorrhage where high model for end-stage liver disease score and the complex gastric variceal anatomy precluded the use of both transjugular intrahepatic porto-systemic shunt and standard balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous occlusion (BRTO) procedures respectively. The patient was successfully managed by percutaneous transhepatic coil embolization combined with BRTO. It is of great importance to obtain an accurate cross-sectional image to evaluate the anatomical variances of gastric varices that will lead to appropriate vascular access and to chose a suitable embolization method.

Visceral artery pseudoaneurysms are a relatively uncommon complication of chronic pancreatitis. They arise secondary to compromise of the adjacent vasculature by enzymatic autodigestion. It is important to treat these lesions in a timely fashion, given the risk of rupture. Historically, these pseudoaneurysms were primarily treated with surgery, but most are now treated with endovascular embolization as there is less associated morbidity and mortality. However, pseudoaneurysms are not always amenable to endovascular treatment because of a variety of factors. A percutaneous transvisceral route offers an alternate approach to embolization. This case report describes the successful percutaneous treatment of a pancreatic pseudoaneurysm via a transhepatic approach. Important technical considerations, risks, and postprocedural care associated with a percutaneous transvisceral approach are discussed. • Percutaneous trans-organ treatment of pancreatic pseudoaneurysms across organs is used in otherwise technically or anatomically limited case. • It is important to be mindful of organ structure, adjacent anatomy, and needle gauge when performing these procedures. • Nurses should be familiar with possible post-procedural complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vascular access is the Achilles tendon of hemodialysis and is considered the lifeline for patients with end stage renal disease. Arteriovenous fistulas and grafts are the preferred traditional access for performing dialysis therapy. However, some patients exhaust the traditional routes of dialysis vascular access for different reasons. In search for alternatives, other unusual vascular routes have been explored, such as transhepatic and translumbar approaches, as the last resort to preserve life in this unfortunate population. Here, we present the unusual case of a 66-year-old female who ran out of the traditional vascular access options and became catheter dependent via the right femoral vein. However, due to recurrent femoral catheter infections, extensive skin calciphylactic lesions and her body habitus, other routes were explored and the decision was to use the transhepatic approach. Traditionally, the right and middle hepatic veins are used to insert these catheters. However, the use of the left hepatic vein was not reported in the literature. Hence, in order to avoid the skin lesions seen in our patient, the dialysis catheter was inserted using the left hepatic vein. Overall, this case highlights the challenges of securing a reliable vascular access to perform dialysis therapy and brings attention to other vascular dialysis routes in certain clinical scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Percutaneous image-guided biopsies of pancreatic malignancies may prove challenging and nondiagnostic due to a variety of anatomic considerations. For patients with complex post-surgical anatomy, such as a Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, diagnosis via endoscopic ultrasound with fine-needle aspiration may not be possible because of an inability to reach the proximal duodenum. This report describes the first diagnostic case of transbiliary intravascular ultrasound-guided biopsy of a pancreatic head mass in a patient with prior Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for which a diagnosis could not be achieved via percutaneous and endoscopic approaches. Transbiliary intravascular ultrasound-guided biopsy resulted in a diagnosis of pancreatic adenocarcinoma, allowing the initiation of chemotherapy.

Clinical Impact: This case report sheds light on a rare complication of pancreatitis, splenic vein pseudoaneurysm. The pseudoaneurysm was successfully treated percutaneously using a covered stent. The article also emphasizes the utilization and safety of transhepatic approach to interventions related to portal vein and its tributaries., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Purpose: To describe our experience with the technique of transhepatic venous access for hemodialysis and to evaluate its functionality and complications. Patients and methods: From March 2012 till October 2012, 23 patients with age ranging from 12 to 71 years old having end-stage renal disease (ESRD) were included in our study and were subjected to transhepatic venous catheter insertion. In 21 patients there were not any remaining patent peripheral venous accesses. In 2 patients there were only a last one venous access needed to be preserved. Thus, it was decided to make THVA. In all the 23 patients the indication was palliative due to inoperability which was because of inability to insert an arterio-venous graft or making another arterio-venous fistula. Complications were evaluated and calculated in terms of number of procedures, infection, dislodgement and outcome; in terms of disfunctionality of the catheter. Follow-up was performed by monitoring the catheter dialysis rate in each session, abdominal ultrasonography, fluoroscopy or CT. Mean survival time and median survival time from the start of treatment were calculated using Kaplan–Meier method. Results: Twenty-three patients required a single transhepatic access procedure. Because of catheter dislodgment, two patients required a second access placement procedure, which resulted in a total of 25 separate transhepatic access sites in 23 patients. Technical success was achieved in 22 procedures. Functionality success was achieved in 20 patients. Functionality failure occurred in 3 patients. The trans-hepatic catheters stayed in place between 90 and 300 days. Complications occurred in 14 patients. Conclusion: Based on our findings, transhepatic hemodialysis catheters have proven to achieve good long-term functionality. A high level of maintenance is required to preserve patency, although this approach provides remarkably durable access for patients who have otherwise exhausted access options.

PURPOSE: To evaluate, in dogs, the biliary sphincter subjected to dilation by hydrostatic balloon by the point of view of structural alterations of the papilla and the biochemestry and bacterial contamination of the bile. METHODS: Twenty dogs were submitted to laparotomy, duodenotomy, and enlargement of the major duodenal papilla- GA(n=10) - with balloon of 8mm inflated with pressure of 0,5atm, during 2 minutes or to the sham procedure - GB(n=10). Blood samples collected on times t(0day), t(7days) and t(28days) were subjected to dosages of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) for cholestasis evaluation. The collected material from the gall bladder at the same times were registered and numbered to be submitted to culture in BHI, blood agar (rich, non-selective element) and Mac Conkey (selective element for Gram-negative bacillus. On the 28th day three fragments of the papilla were tranversally cut by the choledoc axis 3mm from the duodenal papilla and the cuts, stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's tricome, were evaluated according to their inflammatory reaction. RESULTS: The GGT and ALP averages on the three periods in the groups A and B did not show significant differences, not being characterizes the cholestasis. The bacterian contamination was significantly higher in GA (2,19) than in GB (1,96); the contamination was lower in the initial time compared with 7 and 28 days (t0

PURPOSE: To evaluate, in dogs, the functions of biliary sphincter subjected to dilation hydrostatic balloon by the point of view of the radiographic and manometric alterations. METHODS: Twenty dogs were submitted to laparotomy, duodenotomy, and enlargement of the major duodenal papilla- GA(n=10) - with balloon of 8mm inflated with pressure of 0,5atm, during 2 minutes or to the sham procedure - GB(n=10). The computadorized manometry and the cholangiography were done before and immediately after the initial procedure, one and four weeks after the dilation or the sham. It was calculated from the radiographic images: the mean, standard deviation, absolute and percentual variation of the diameter measures of the papilla. It was measured: the basal pressure in the papilla region, the contraction amplitudes and the choledoc pressure in all observation times (t0, t7 and t28). RESULTS: There was not differences in the diameter measures of the papilla in t0 (GA=5,14 +/- 1,1) (GB=4,64 +/-0,9), as well as in the absolute (0,14 mm) or relative (-2,7%) variations. In the animals of GA the papilla basal pressure measure was found to be smaller in t28 (11,1) than in t0 (18,6) and t7 (16,2). The contraction amplitudes measures were significantly smaller in the postoperatory times (post-t0, t7 and t28) when comparing to the initial time (pre-t0), in the animals of groups A and B. The average pressure values in the choledoc were also smaller in t28 (7,5) than in t0 (17,8) and t7 (12,6) in the animals of GA. CONCLUSION: the function of the major duodenal papilla is partially commited with the dilation, therefore it provoked the basal pressure decrease and compromising of the capacity of sphincter in its cyclical contractions up to the 28 days of observation.OBJETIVO: Avaliar, em cães, a função da papila duodenal maior submetidas à dilatação por balão hidrostático sob o ponto de vista das alterações radiográficas e manométricas. MÉTODOS: Vinte cães foram submetidos a laparotomia, duodenotomia, dilatação da papila maior - GA(n=10) - com balão de 8mm insuflado com pressão de 0,5atm, durante 2 minutos ou ao procedimento simulado - GB(n=10). A manometria computadorizada e a colangiografia foram efetuadas antes e imediatamente após o procedimento inicial, uma e quatro semanas após a dilatação ou a simulação. Foram calculadas à partir das imagens radiográficas: a média, desvio-padrão, mediana, variação absoluta e porcentual das medidas do diâmetro da papila. Foram medidas: a pressão basal na região da papila, a amplitude das contrações e a pressão do colédoco em todos tempos de observação(t0, t7 e t28). RESULTADOS: Não houve diferença nas medidas do diâmetro da papila em t0 (GA=5,14 e DP=1,1) (GB=4,64 e DP=0,9), assim como nas variações absolutas (0,14mm) ou relativas (-2,7%). Nos animais do GA a medida da pressão basal da papila, mostrou-se menor no t28 (11,1) que nos tempos t0 (18,6) e T7 (16,2). As médias das amplitudes de contração foram significantemente inferiores nos tempos pós-operatórios (pós-t0, t7 e t28) em relação ao tempo inicial (pré-t0), nos animais dos grupos A e B. Os valores médios da pressão no colédoco também foram inferiores em t28 (7,5) que nos tempos t0 (17,8) e t7 (12,6) nos animais do GA. CONCLUSÃO: A função da papila duodenal está comprometida parcialmente com a dilatação, pois provocou diminuição da pressão basal e comprometimento da capacidade do esfíncter em suas contrações cíclicas até aos 28 dias de observação.

The transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) is a non-selective portosystemic shunt created using endovascular techniques. The first TIPS was performed in Germany in 1988. The VIATORR self-expandable PTFE covered stent-graft (WL Gore, Flagstaff AZ) was approved by the FDA for a TIPS application in December of 2004. This stent-graft offers excellent shunt patency rates and it is possible that it has a beneficial effect on patient survival. Patient surveillance and post-procedural management have changed after the introduction of this stent-graft. This article presents the current management strategies that are followed at our Institution for patients who have undergone a TIPS procedure with a VIATORR stent graft including imaging follow-up, management of encephalopathy, medical management and nutritional aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PURPOSE: To evaluate, in dogs, the biliary sphincter subjected to dilation by hydrostatic balloon by the point of view of structural alterations of the papilla and the biochemestry and bacterial contamination of the bile. METHODS: Twenty dogs were submitted to laparotomy, duodenotomy, and enlargement of the major duodenal papilla- GA(n=10) - with balloon of 8mm inflated with pressure of 0,5atm, during 2 minutes or to the sham procedure - GB(n=10). Blood samples collected on times t(0day), t(7days) and t(28days) were subjected to dosages of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) for cholestasis evaluation. The collected material from the gall bladder at the same times were registered and numbered to be submitted to culture in BHI, blood agar (rich, non-selective element) and Mac Conkey (selective element for Gram-negative bacillus. On the 28th day three fragments of the papilla were tranversally cut by the choledoc axis 3mm from the duodenal papilla and the cuts, stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's tricome, were evaluated according to their inflammatory reaction. RESULTS: The GGT and ALP averages on the three periods in the groups A and B did not show significant differences, not being characterizes the cholestasis. The bacterian contamination was significantly higher in GA (2,19) than in GB (1,96); the contamination was lower in the initial time compared with 7 and 28 days (t0

The role of the interventional radiologist continues to expand in the treatment of biliary disease. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangioscopy (PTCS) provides direct visualization of the biliary system for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, especially in cases where anatomical considerations prohibit a peroral approach. Visual inspection and endoscopically guided biopsy allow differentiation between benign and malignant lesions, as well as accurate assessment of the tumor extent for surgical planning. Studies have demonstrated greater than 95% accuracy with PTCS in diagnosing biliary malignancies. Cholangioscopy is also used to treat obstructive stones in the biliary system, which may require laser lithotripsy. PTCS-guided removal of biliary stones is highly successful, with complete stone removal from the bile ducts occurring in approximately 90% of cases. Overall, PTCS is a safe and effective procedure, with severe complications occurring in less than 8% of patients. The purpose of this review is to familiarize its reader with common indications for PTCS, techniques for procedural success, expected outcomes, and management of potential complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Common bile duct stones constitute the main etiology of nonmalignant biliary obstruction. Endoscopic retrieval of common bile duct stones has been adopted as the primary treatment modality for extrahepatic biliary stones. However, endoscopic therapy may fail in patients who have had previous gastrointestinal tract surgeries, including partial gastrectomy with Billroth II reconstruction or bilioenteric anastomosis, or in patients with anatomical anomalies such as a duodenal periampullary diverticulum, which makes the biliary duct difficult to access via an endoscopic approach. Endoscopic therapy may also not be suitable for hepatolithiasis with large and impacted stones. In such situations, a percutaneous approach is generally the best option. A variety of percutaneous techniques are available for removal of intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile duct stones via transhepatic approach and T-tube tract. These techniques include extraction, fragmentation, and expulsion of stones into the duodenum. In this article, clinical presentations, imaging modalities, and different management options, particularly percutaneous techniques for the management of choledocholithiasis or hepatolithiasis, are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Purpose: To describe our experience with the technique of transhepatic venous access for hemodialysis and to evaluate its functionality and complications. Patients and methods: From March 2012 till October 2012, 23 patients with age ranging from 12 to 71years old having end-stage renal disease (ESRD) were included in our study and were subjected to transhepatic venous catheter insertion. In 21 patients there were not any remaining patent peripheral venous accesses. In 2 patients there were only a last one venous access needed to be preserved. Thus, it was decided to make THVA. In all the 23 patients the indication was palliative due to inoperability which was because of inability to insert an arterio-venous graft or making another arterio-venous fistula. Complications were evaluated and calculated in terms of number of procedures, infection, dislodgement and outcome; in terms of disfunctionality of the catheter. Follow-up was performed by monitoring the catheter dialysis rate in each session, abdominal ultrasonography, fluoroscopy or CT. Mean survival time and median survival time from the start of treatment were calculated using Kaplan–Meier method. Results: Twenty-three patients required a single transhepatic access procedure. Because of catheter dislodgment, two patients required a second access placement procedure, which resulted in a total of 25 separate transhepatic access sites in 23 patients. Technical success was achieved in 22 procedures. Functionality success was achieved in 20 patients. Functionality failure occurred in 3 patients. The trans-hepatic catheters stayed in place between 90 and 300days. Complications occurred in 14 patients. Conclusion: Based on our findings, transhepatic hemodialysis catheters have proven to achieve good long-term functionality. A high level of maintenance is required to preserve patency, although this approach provides remarkably durable access for patients who have otherwise exhausted access options. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Purpose: Assessment of fluid-responsiveness is a key aspect of daily management in critically ill patients. Non-invasive evaluation of the variation of inferior vena cava (IVC) diameter during ventilation may provide useful information. However, a standard sagittal IVC visualization from the subcostal (SC) region is not always feasible. An alternative method to visualize the IVC is a coronal trans-hepatic (TH) approach., Materials and Methods: We performed a systematic search to explore the interchangeability of IVC evaluation with SC and TH views. We searched Medline and EMBASE to identify prospective studies. We did not consider the relationship between axial and sagittal visualization of the IVC., Results: We included seven studies reporting data on IVC evaluation with both SC and TH IVC views. Four studies were conducted on spontaneously breathing patients/volunteers, two on fully mechanically ventilated patients, and one in a mixed population, with large heterogeneity regarding the analyses reported. Limits of agreement between SC and TH were large. Concordance of the IVC collapsibility/distensibility indices are not interchangeable between SC and TH view. Correlation between diameters measured with SC and TH approach and intra/inter-observer correlation produced variable results., Conclusions: An overview of the included studies suggests that longitudinal TH and SC assessment of IVC size and respiratory variation are not interchangeable. New studies with accurate data reporting and appropriate statistical analysis are needed to define proper cut-offs for fluid responsiveness when using TH approach for IVC visualization., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Tricuspid valvulopathy has gained a lot of attention in recent years, especially due to the advances in percutaneous management. CHD can present with primary or secondary malfunction of the tricuspid valve, often not addressed due to high surgical risk after several interventions. We present two cases of adults with complex congenital heart malformations and borderline clinical situations who successfully underwent percutaneous tricuspid replacement.

Stomal or parastomal varices are extraperitoneal ectopic mesenteric varices. Parastomal varices are not common but can be a source of considerable bleeding. They usually occur in the setting of portal hypertension, although, in theory, they can occur because of vascular thrombosis of the mesentery. An obstructive element (not necessarily venous thrombosis, but a constrictive effect) most likely exists and thus localizes the bleeding to the stomal mesenteric varices. This obstruction can be due to postsurgical changes associated with the stoma creation itself. Bleeding is the main presentation of stomal varices. Bleeding can be life threatening; however, most of it can be controlled by manual compression by patients who are consciously aware. Anecdotally, there are 2 pathologic bleeding presentations. Certain stomas are diffusely congested and ooze blood diffusely, and others bleed focally from a particular site (from a particular mesenteric varix). The focal bleeders are the ones that respond favorably to manual compression by the patient. The stomas that are diffusely congested or engorged with diffuse venous oozing do better with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) decompression. Bleeding from focal varices in the stoma (with the rest of the stomal mucosa looking normal and not engorged) can be treated with TIPS (if the portal or mesenteric vein or both are patent) or with transvenous obliteration utilizing 1% sodium tetradecyl sulfate (not 3% sodium tetradecyl sulfate). Balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration, percutaneous transhepatic obliteration, trans-TIPS balloon-occluded antegrade transvenous obliteration can all be adequate approaches to transvenous obliteration. However, the least invasive (in the authors' opinion) and simplest is the direct mesenteric venous stick (balloon-occluded antegrade transvenous obliteration–type) approach with ultrasound-guided compression of the systemic outflow vein. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ectopic varices are dilated splanchnic (mesoportal) veins/varicosities and/or are dilated portosystemic collaterals that can occur along the entire gastrointestinal tract outside the common pathologic variceal sites. Ectopic varices are complex and highly variable entities that are not fully understood. Ectopic varices represent 2%-5% of a gastrointestinal tract variceal bleeding. However, ectopic varices have a 4-fold increased risk of bleeding when compared with esophageal varices and can have a mortality rate as high as 40%. All treatment strategies and techniques have been utilized in managing these potentially mortal varices and have shown poor outcomes. The debate of whether to manage these varices by decompression with a transjugular portosystemic shunt, or other portosystemic shunts, vs transvenous obliteration is unresolved. The rebleed rates after transjugular portosystemic shunt decompression are 20%-40%. The rebleed rates after transvenous obliteration and the mortality rate at 3-6 months are 30%-40% and 50%-60%, respectively. Hemodynamically from an etiology standpoint, there are 2 types: occlusive (type-b) and nonocclusive (oncotic or type-a). Hemodynamically from a vascular-shunting standpoint, there could be a component of portoportal or portosystemic shunting or both with varying dominance. This is the basis of the new classification system described herein. Management strategies (decompression vs sclerosis) are discussed. The ideal management strategy is a treatment that leads to prompt hemostasis but also addresses the etiology or hemodynamics of the ectopic varices. It is the hope that with better understanding, description, and categorization of ectopic varices comes a more systematic approach to this rare but menacing problem. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Transvenous obliteration of gastric varices can be performed from the systemic venous side (draining veins or shunts) or from the portal venous side (portal afferent feeders). Balloon-occluded transvenous obliteration from the systemic veins is referred to as balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration (BRTO) and balloon-occluded transvenous obliteration from the portal veins is referred to as balloon-occluded antegrade (anterograde) transvenous obliteration (BATO). BRTO is the conventional balloon-occluded transvenous obliteration procedure and BATO is considered an alternative or adjunctive approach. This is because, from a technical standpoint, the least invasive choice of access or approach for balloon-occluded transvenous obliteration of gastric varices is the traditional or conventional transrenal route. The objective of BRTO or BATO or both is complete obliteration of the gastric varices with preservation of the anatomical hepatopetal flow of the splenoportal circulation. This article reviews the indications, contraindications, and technical considerations of the conventional BRTO procedure. The indications of concomitant portal venous modulators such as splenic embolization or the creation of a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt or both are also discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The pathologic anatomy and hemodynamics of the left-sided portal circulation that is associated with gastric varices (GVs) are complex and highly variable. Understanding the pathologic anatomy and hemodynamics associated with GVs is important for clinical management decisions and for the technical descriptive details of the balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration (BRTO) and balloon-occluded antegrade transvenous obliteration procedures. A reflection of the considerable variability in anatomy, pathology, and hemodynamics is the numerous descriptive and categorical classifications that have been described in the past 2 decades. This article reviews the detailed descriptive gross anatomy, radiographic anatomy, and portosystemic venous hemodynamics that are associated with GVs and that can be encountered during the BRTO or balloon-occluded antegrade transvenous obliteration procedure(s) or both. Definitions are also set to clarify this detailed anatomy that received limited description in the prior literature. Moreover, all the classifications that have been described (to the best of the author's knowledge) that are relevant to the BRTO procedure are detailed in the article. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]