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[EN] Antlers are unique structures because they grow rapidly and are cast annually, representing an important energetic and mineral cost for deer. Variables related to the timing of antler growth, such as date of antler casting and length of growth period, therefore, should be affected by somatic resources and availability of food. We examined the effects of body and antler weight, age, and climatic variables, on antler casting date and the period of time antlers were grown as well as possible random effects of individual, year, cohort, and pedigree, based on 244 antlers in a population of 109 males of Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus) over a 17-year study from 1999 to 2016. Body weight affected casting date, with heavier males casting antlers earlier than lighter males. Antlers also grew faster and were cast earlier among older males than young males. Antler weight influenced casting date and the duration of the growth period: males with heavier antlers cast them earlier and grow them faster than males with light antlers. Nevertheless, age and antler weight interacted; as such, older males grew their antlers slower and delay casting date because they produce heavier antlers, in contrast to younger males, where those with the heaviest antlers grow them faster and cast first. The date of the end of antler growth also influenced casting date, so that antlers that took the longest to develop were cast later than those that finished growing early. We conclude that older and heavier males cast their antlers earlier and grow them faster than younger and lighter males, likely to correlate the subsequent antler growth with the spring peak in plant nutrients, but that this early development is limited physiologically by the size of the antlers., [ES] Las cuernas son estructuras únicas porque crecen rápidamente y desmogan cada año, representando así un coste importante para los ciervos. Por lo tanto, las variables relacionadas con la cronología de su crecimiento, tales como la fecha de desmogue o la duración del periodo de crecimiento, deberían verse afectadas por los recursos corporales del macho, así como por la cantidad de alimento disponible. Examinamos los efectos de la masa corporal y de las cuernas, la edad y las variables climáticas sobre la fecha de desmogue y la duración del crecimiento de las cuernas, así como los posibles efectos aleatorios del individuo, año, cohorte y pedigrí utilizando 244 cuernas en una población de 109 machos de ciervo ibérico (Cervus elaphus) a lo largo de 17 años de estudio desde 1999 hasta 2016. El peso corporal afectó a la fecha de desmogue, siendo los machos más pesados los que desmogan antes en relación a los más ligeros. Las cuernas también crecieron más rápido y fueron desmogadas antes entre los machos más viejos en comparación con los más jóvenes. El peso de la cuerna afectó a la fecha de desmogue y el periodo de crecimiento de la misma; machos con cuernas más pesadas desmogaron antes y las desarrollaron más rápido que machos con cuernas ligeras. En cualquier caso, la edad y peso de las cuernas interaccionaron y así, los machos de más edad ralentizan el crecimiento de las cuernas y retrasan la fecha de desmogue conforme desarrollan cuernas más pesadas, al contrario de los machos más jóvenes, los cuales desarrollan sus cuernas más rápido y desmogan antes cuanto más pesadas son las mismas. La fecha de final de crecimiento de las cuernas también afectó a la fecha de desmogue, de modo que los machos cuyas cuernas tardaron más tiempo en desarrollarse fueron los que más tarde desmogaron. Concluimos que los machos de más edad y más peso desmogan sus cuernas antes y las hacen crecer más rápido, posiblemente para correlacionar el crecimiento de la siguiente cuerna con el pico primaveral en nutrientes de las plantas, pero este desarrollo temprano está fisiológicamente limitado por el tamaño de la cuerna., Part of the original work by the authors of this study was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy (Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad) within the Estate Program of Research, Innovation, and Development oriented towards Challenges of Society, within the Framework Plan of Scientific, Technical Research, and Innovation 2013-2016 and co-funded by the European Union (reference number RTC-2016-5327-2). The study also was funded partly by project PIC of regional government of Castilla-La Mancha (Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, project ref. SBPLY/19/180501/000115).

This article belongs to the Section Animal Welfare., Agonistic behavioural interactions play a decisive role in the competition for food, space, mating opportunities, and establishing social rank. We used pelt biting (number of bites on an animal’s body) as a proxy for assessing the intensity of agonistic animal interactions and how it responded to social, population, and heat stress factors. We modelled a 14-year time series of pelt biting records and observational data of agonistic interactions on a population of captive Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus). We found that (i) the higher the social rank of deer, the lower the number of pelt bites received; (ii) increasing heat stress conditions caused deer to suffer more pelt bites; (iii) males received more bites than females; (iv) the heavier the deer, the lower the number of bites on their bodies; (v) the bigger the group, the more bites exhibited on its members; (vi) deer 5–6 years old suffered greater rate of pelt biting than younger or older deer; and (vii) hinds that gave birth earlier in the parturition period suffered less pelt biting than those that gave birth around the peak of the parturition season (p < 0.01 for all effects). Pelt biting is useful to predict management situations in which deer welfare could be at stake., The authors are grateful to Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (research project SBPLY/19/180501/000115) and programme Beatriz Galindo 2020 (Plan Estatal de Política Científica y Técnica y de Innovación CNU/692/2019) for financial support.

Supplementation with copper (Cu) improves deer antler characteristics, but it could modify meat quality and increase its Cu content to levels potentially harmful for humans. Here, we studied the effects of Cu bolus supplementation by means on quality and composition of sternocephalicus (ST) and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles (n=13 for each one) from yearling male red deer fed with a balanced diet. Each intraruminal bolus, containing 3.4 g of Cu, was administered orally in the treatment group to compare with the control group. Meat traits studied were pH at 24 h postmortem (pH24), colour, chemical composition, cholesterol content, fatty acid (FA) composition, amino acid (AA) profile and mineral content. In addition, the effect of Cu supplementation on mineral composition of liver and serum (at 0 and 90 days of treatment) was analysed. No interactions between Cu supplementation and muscle were observed for any trait. Supplementation with Cu increased the protein content of meat (P, This work was supported by INCYDEN Project (grant no. RTC-2016-5327-2) (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad and the European Union Fund for Regional Development) and Project 01110AB020 funded by Excma. Diputación Provincial de Albacete. J. M. Lorenzo is a member of the MARCARNE network, funded by CYTED (ref. 116RT0503).

A recent study showed that antlers have evolved a high rate of growth due to the expression of proto-oncogenes and that they have also evolved to express several tumour suppressor genes to control the risk of cancer. This may explain why deer antler velvet (DAV) extract shows anti-tumour activity. The fast growth of antler innervation through the velvet in close association to blood vessels provides a unique environment to study the fast but non-cancerous proliferation of heterogeneous cell populations. We set out to study the anti-cancer effect of DAV in glioblastoma (GB) cell lines in comparison with temozolomide, a chemotherapeutic drug used to treat high-grade brain tumours. Here we report, for the first time, that DAV extract from the tip, but not from mid-parts of the antler, exhibits an anti-tumour effect in GB cell lines (T98G and A172) while being non-toxic in non-cancerous cell lines (HEK293 and HACAT). In T98G cells, DAV treatment showed reduced proliferation (37.5%) and colony-formation capacity (84%), inhibited migration (39%), induced changes in cell cycle progression, and promoted apoptosis. The anticancer activity of DAV extract as demonstrated by these results may provide a new therapeutic strategy for GB treatment., The authors are thankful to the Fundación del Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos (Toledo, Spain) and the Spanish Ministry of Economy (Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad, Madrid, Spain) for financial support. L. C. is thankful to FNHP for the research fellowship (398764, 2018/6003). T. L. C., M. P., J. P., and A. G. are co-funded by the Estate program of Research, Innovation, and Development oriented towards Challenges of Society, by the European Union (reference number RTC-2016-5327-2) and by Counselling of Education, Culture, and Sports of Castilla-La Mancha [project no. SBPLY/19/180501/000115)].

Climatic models predict scenarios in which ambient temperature will continue increasing worldwide. Under these climatic conditions, fitness and animal welfare of many populations are expected to suffer, especially those that live in captive or semi-natural conditions, where opportunities of heat abatement are limited. We undertook an experimental design to assess the effect of heat abatement that water sprinkling might have on Iberian red deer calf growth and behaviour from birth to weaning (135 days). One group of ten mother-calf pairs lived on plots with water sprinkling (treatment) available during summer’s hottest time of the day, while the control group (nine mother-calf pairs) occupied plots with no available water sprinkling. Treatment and control groups were fed ad libitum and swapped between plots every seven days to minimise any plot effect. Body weight was monitored weekly and individual behaviour was recorded once or twice a week at mid-day. We observed that calves had showers under the sprinklers and wallowed in mud puddles. The results clearly indicated that calves of the treatment group showed a significant increase in body weight at weaning in comparison with the control group, with no differences between sexes (treatment: male = 56.5 kg, female = 50.3 kg; control: male = 50.3 kg, female = 46.5 kg). Mother weight and mother age effects were negligible on calf body weight at weaning. The heavier the mother the faster was the rate of growth of its offspring, irrespective of calf sex. The model indicated that although males grew significantly slower than female calves in the control group, males grew faster than females when exposed to the treatment. Calves of the treatment group spent less time drinking, less time in the shade, similar time eating and more time in motion than calves of the control group. There were no behavioural differences between calf sexes of treatment and control groups. The results indicate the importance of providing animals with opportunities of heat abatement in hot environments to improve animal growth and welfare in farmed Iberian red deer., The authors are grateful to Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (Retos-Colaboración program, Project INCYDEN, RTC-2016-5327-2) and Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (research project SBPLY/19/180501/000115) and programe Beatriz Galindo 2020 (Plan Estatal de Política Científica y Técnica y de Innovación CNU/692/2019) for financial support.

This article belongs to the Section Proteomics., Antlers are the only organ in the mammalian body that regenerates each year. They can reach growth rates of 1–3 cm/day in length and create more than 20 cm2/day of skin in the antler tips (their growth centers). Previous proteomic studies regarding antlers have focused on antler growth centers (tips) compared to the standard bone to detect the proteins involved in tissue growth. However, proteins of cell differentiation and regeneration will be more accurately detected considering more growing tissues. Thus, we set out to compare proteins expressed in antler tips (the highest metabolism rate and cell differentiation) vs. middle sections (moderate cell growth involving bone calcification), using ribs as controls. Samples were obtained in mid-June with antlers’ phenology corresponding to the middle of their growth period. Quantitative proteomic analysis identified 259 differentially abundant proteins mainly associated with antioxidant metabolic mechanisms, protein formation and Wnt signalling pathway, meanwhile, the mid antler section was linked to blood proteins. The high metabolic rate and subsequent risk of oxidative stress also seem to have resulted in strong antioxidant mechanisms. These results suggest that redox regulation of proteins is a key factor in the model of deer antler regeneration., This research was funded by the project SBPLY/19/180501/000115 from Conserjería de Educación, Cultura, y Deportes de Castilla-La Mancha awarded to T.L.-C., F.J.P.-B.,was supported by Plan Estatal de Política Científica y Técnica y de Innovación CNU/692/2019. J.M.L. and D.F. belong to the competitive reference research group, FunMeat (Axencia Galega de Innovación, GAIN-IN607A2019/01) and they are members of the HealthyMeat network, funded by CYTED (Ref. 119RT0568).

[Aim of study]: The effects of hunting season (autumn vs. winter) on carcass characteristics and meat quality of Iberian wild red deer were assessed., [Area of study]: A total of 100 males of wild red deer of Iberian genetic line (Cervus elaphus) were hunted on Ciudad Real (south central Spain)., [Material and methods]: Yields for shoulder (with bone), neck, backbone, loin, tenderloin, leg (with bone), short plate and flank were determined. In addition, samples of Longissimus thoracis et lumborum and Rectus abdominis muscles were collected. Then, pH48, colour measurements, chemical composition, cooking loss, Warner Bratzler shear blade, fatty acid and amino acid profiles and mineral content were analyzed.., [Main results]: Deer hunted in autumn (n=50) had higher (p, [Research highlights]: Autumn hunting is recommended to obtain carcasses with higher yields of shoulder, backbone and short plate and meat with higher IMF. Conversely, winter hunting is advisable for higher loin yield and for a profile richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids., RTC-2016-5327-2: Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (España) (Program Retos-Colaboración, Project INCYDEN). Counselling of Education, Culture and Sports of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain: RSBPLY/19/180501/000.

We studied changes in chemical composition, somatic cell count, and immunoglobulin G (IgG) and M (IgM) content in red deer (Cervus elaphus) colostrum during the transition to milk at different times after parturition (, This work was supported by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad and the European Union Fund for Regional Development [INCYDEN Project RTC-2016-5327-2], and project [MTM2017-86875-C3-1-R AEI/ FEDER, UE]. M. Carmona is grateful for the Ramón y Cajal Fellowships RyC-2014-16307 by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

This article belongs to the Special Issue Small Ruminant Nutrition and Metabolism., This study describes the effects that Cu supplementation of late-gestating and lactating females (hinds) of Iberian red deer fed a balanced diet have on milk production, composition, and somatic cell count (SCC). Experimental hinds (n = 9) were subcutaneously injected every 42 days with Cu (0.83 mg Cu/kg body weight) from day 202 of gestation until the end of lactation (week 18). Control hinds (n = 8) were injected with a physiological saline solution with the same volume and at the same frequency as the experimental group. Copper supplementation decreased the SCC from 1.64 to 1.36 log 10/mL (p = 0.003) and modified the milk mineral profile. In particular, milk from hinds supplemented with Cu had more Ca (p = 0.02), Mg (p = 0.06), and K (p = 0.03) than milk from control hinds. However, Cu supplementation did not influence the Cu content of milk. Therefore, it can be concluded that Cu supplementation of hinds fed a balanced diet from late-gestation to the end of lactation could be a good strategy to reduce SCC and modify the mineral profile of milk increasing its Ca content., The Spanish Ministry of Economy (Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad) supported this work within the Estate program of Research, Innovation and Development oriented towards Challenges of Society, within the Framework Plan of Scientific, Technical Research and Innovation 2013–2016 and co-funded by the European Union (grant number RTC-2016-5327-2).

Amino acid supplementation in cervids is an almost unexplored research area. Lysine (Lys) and Methionine (Met) are the two amino acids considered as limiting for ruminants and Lys supplementation shows good potential for increased antler growth as it is the main component of collagen and a bone tissue precursor. However, several studies in other ruminants have shown greater effects when simultaneously supplementing Lys + Met. Two experiments based on Lys and Met supplementation during first antler growth were conducted during two consecutive years. Each experiment involved 45 yearling fallow bucks distributed in three groups, balanced by weight: Exp.1: Pasture, Pasture + Barley (0.2 kg/animal per day), and Pasture + Barley + Lys (5 g/animal per day); Exp.2: Pasture + Barley (0.5 kg/animal per day), Pasture + Barley + Lys (9 g/animal per day), and Pasture + Barley + Lys + Met (9 and 3 g/animal per day, respectively). Lys supplementation during the first experiment did not improve any antler characteristics (P 0.05). However, in the second experiment, both Lys (9 g) and Lys + Met treatments had positive effects on the external antler characteristics (P = 0.013), antler weight (P = 0.061) and particularly on the burr perimeter (P = 0.008), which is crucial for antler size in following years. The results also suggest a stronger positive effect of amino acid supplementation on antler growth when the animals have a low performance in the presence of poorer pasturing situation., This study was supported by the Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences – CZU Prague (IGA- IGA20195011, CIGA 20185006) and by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic (MZE-RO0718).

Deer venison is increasingly valued as a natural meat. This study examines the three main sources of venison: farmed venison from New Zealand (NZ), the world’s leading producer, and wild deer from Spain (SP), the second largest producer, which mainly supplies venison from traditional autumn–winter driven hunts (monteria), involving packs of dogs, and a smaller proportion culled through summer selective stalking. Meat from NZ contained more protein, lower shear force and lower n-6/n-3 ratio (P, This work was supported by project no. SBPLY/19/180501/000115 supported this work (funded by Counselling of Education, Culture and Sports of Castilla-La Mancha) and by the Spanish Ministry of Economy (Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad) within the Estate program of Research, Innovation and Development oriented towards Challenges of Society, and co-funded by the European Union (reference number RTC-2016-5327-2). This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy (Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad) within the Estate programme of Research, Innovation and Development oriented towards Challenges of Society, within the Framework Plan of Scientific, Technical Research, and Innovation 2013–2016 and co-funded by the European Union (reference number RTC-2016-5327-2). José M. Lorenzo is member of the MARCARNE network, funded by CYTED (ref. 116RT0503).

The main factors affecting the mechanical (and other) properties of bone, including antler, are the proportions of ash (especially Ca and P) and collagen content. However, some trace minerals may also play more important roles than would be expected, given their low levels in bone and antler. One such trace mineral is Cu. Here, we studied the effects of Cu supplementation on the mechanical and structural characteristics, and mineral content of antlers from yearling and adult (4 years of age) red deer fed a balanced diet. Deer (n=35) of different ages (21 yearlings and 14 adults) were studied. A total of 18 stags (11 yearlings and 7 adults) were injected with Cu (0.83 mg Cu/kg BW) every 42 days, whereas the remaining 17 (10 yearlings and 7 adults) were injected with physiological saline solution (control group). The Cu content of serum was analysed at the beginning of the trial and 84 days after the first injection to assess whether the injected Cu was mobilized in blood. Also, the mechanical and structural properties of antlers and the mineral content in their cortical walls were examined at three (yearlings) or four (adults) points along the antler beam. The effect of Cu supplementation was different in yearlings and adults. In yearlings, supplementation increased the Cu content of serum by 28%, but did not affect antler properties. However, in adults, Cu supplementation increased the Cu content of serum by 38% and tended to increase the cortical thickness of antlers (P=0.06). Therefore, we conclude that, even in animals receiving balanced diets, supplementation with Cu could increase antler cortical thickness in adult deer, although not in yearlings. This may improve the trophy value of antlers, as well as having potential implications for bones in elderly humans, should Cu supplementation have similar effects on bones as those observed in antlers., This work was supported by Project No. PEII-2014-004-P (Regional Consejería de Educación y Deportes de Castilla-La Mancha) and INCYDEN Project RTC-2016-5327-2 (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad).

We studied the effects of social rank on the haematologic profile in a herd of 24 female Iberian red deer hinds. Social rank hierarchy was determined and blood samples were taken and analysed. After adjusting for age and body mass, dominance ranking showed a significant negative effect (ie, lower values in dominant hinds) on white blood cell (WBC) count, haemoglobin and haematocrit. Our results are similar to those reported for stressed individuals due to physical immobilisation, but do not support the predicted enhanced erythropoiesis due to higher levels of androgens. The results for WBC numbers may also reflect that subordinate hinds must allocate a higher amount of resources to immunity as a result of injuries incurred from dominant hinds, while simultaneously facing restricted access to food sources. For red blood cell (RBC) counts, the results may be due to subordinate hinds likely needing increased haematocrit and haemoglobin levels for fast flight responses. Our data show that social rank influences haematologic profile, and thus it should be considered when correctly interpreting blood analyses in social cervid species., This study was supported by the grants IGA-20175014 (Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech Republic) and RTC-2016-5327-2 (MINECO, Spain).

The ethanol stability, a freshness and heat stability indicator, of Iberian red deer milk was determined. Additionally, the interspecific differences in composition, physical, hygienic and technological parameters, in bulk tank milk obtained from red deer, sheep, goats and cows were compared. Red deer milk ethanol stability was similar to that of sheep milk; bovine milk was the most stable and goat milk the least. Ethanol stability was influenced by pH; within the range studied, increased pH increased stability, this effect being more noticeable in bovine milk than in milk from the other species. Milk composition presented evident differences among species, as did somatic cell counts, total bacterial count, pH and titratable acidity or density. The results suggest that milk of red deer is very similar to that of sheep, but is even richer in fat and proteins, making it an interesting and novel product with high potential in dairy industry., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and the European Union Fund for Regional Development [INCYDEN Project RTC-2016-5327-2]. Carmona M. thanks the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for the Ramón y Cajal FellowshipsRyC-2014-16307

Several studies of mammals have examined the fitness consequences of the age of primiparity, due to primiparous hinds face a trade-off between reproductive effort at first breeding and body growth. Physical condition of hinds is the most important factor determining whether individuals became pregnant. In fact, in yearling hinds there is a positive effect of premating body weight on conception and the onset of puberty depends on her body weight. In addition reproductive effort at first breeding should reduce the amount of body reserves available for growth and maintenance, potentially reducing residual reproductive value. This study examined 103 primiparous hinds of Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) with one (n=75), two (n=21), or three (n=7) years old at mating, from 1998 up to 2006. They were kept in a 30000 square meters opendoor in the Experimental Farm of Castilla-La Mancha University in Albacete (38° 57′ 10′′ North, 1° 47′ 00′′ West and 690m above sea level) and they had ad libitum access to food and water. Hinds were weighed weekly on a ± 50g electronic balance, and then they were driven to a small handling box to asses their body condition. General Linear Models were used to examine the effect of the age at first breeding on the following variables: hind weight at mating, precalving and postcalving, weight gain during gestation, weight lost at calving, mating body condition and calf birth weight. The GLMs performed showed a significant effect of hind age at first breeding on mating weight (coefficient: 7.15 ± 1.67; P< 0.001), precalving weight (coefficient: 6.31 ± 1.83; P< 0.01), and postcalving weight (coefficient: 6.17 ± 1.59; P< 0.001), improving all of these variables with hind age. Mating body condition was affected by hind age (P< 0.05) too, being greater in primiparous with one year at mating than in those hinds with two or three mating years. Also, the monthly trend in body condition during gestation was different in the three groups of hinds; in hinds with one year at mating body condition improved during two first months, beginning to decrease in the third month of gestation while in the other groups of hinds it was improving practically during all gestation. On the other hand, the minimum mating weight observed to achieve a successful reproduction was 53.5, 58.5, or 71kg in primiparous with one, two or three mating years respectively. Finally, no differences were observed between groups in weight gain during gestation, weight lost at calving or calf birth weight.

All mammals have the ability to taste salt, so several studies have focus on mineral selection in the diet. Sodium and phosphorus are usually the most limiting for ungulates and thus some ruminants may regulate their consumption according to mineral needs and content of food sources. The aim of this study was to assess if the amount of minerals consumed is related to daily requirements. It was performed during lactation, examining consumption of 23 adult hinds and their calves. Animals were captive in 10,000 m2 enclosures without pasture. Eleven highly bioavailable mineral compounds were offered in a cafeteria test and weighed weekly. Consumption behaviour was recorded by two cameras from dawn till dusk during the whole lactation period. Incidentally, meal offered had enough minerals to meet daily requirements of all elements except Na and Co. Mineral consumption of supplements was scarce for most elements (less than 10% of daily requirements) except for Na (44%) and Co (36%). Cobalt-supplement was consumed by calves much more than by hinds (90% vs. 10%), probably because requirements for growing ruminants are about 10 times higher than for adults. Animals consumed high percentages of Na and Co but not other minerals, even though flavours of NaCl, KCl and salt-mixed trace minerals are very similar. Thus, consumption seems to reflect physiological needs., This study has been funded by projects PAC-01304298 (JCCM), PET2006-0263 (MCYT), PCI08-0115-8730 (JCCM).

Antler is a good model to study bone biology both because it is accessible and because it grows and is shed every year. Previous studies have shown that chemical composition changes as the antler is grown, implying constraints in mineral availability and the physiological effort made to grow it. This study aimed at examining antler mechanical properties to assess whether they reflect physiological effort and whether they are associated with precise mineral bone composition rather than just ash content, which is usually the main factor affecting mechanical properties. We examined Young’s modulus of elasticity (E), strength, and work to maximum load, as well as bone mineral composition, along the antler shaft. Then we compared trends between antlers from two populations: captive, well-fed, health-managed deer (n = 15), and free-ranging deer with lower food quality and no health treatment (n = 10). Greater E, strength and work were found for better fed and health managed deer. In addition, antler chemical composition of both populations differed in Na, Mg, K, Fe and Si, and marginally in Zn, but not in ash or Ca content. Significant and clear divergent trends in mechanical properties supporting greater physiological exhaustion in free-ranging deer were found for all mechanical variables. Detailed models showed that, in addition to ash content, independent factors extracted from principal component analyses on composition affected E and strength, but not work to maximum load. The results suggest that there is an association between bone chemical composition and mechanical properties independently of ash content., This study was supported by projects PAC06-01304298 (JCCM), PBI 05-040 (JCCM), and AGL2003-08547 (MCYT).

Milk minerals are important for calf growth, and they have other roles as well, such as immune regulation. This 2-yr study examined content of Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Fe, and Zn in milk of 54 Iberian red deer hinds through 18 wk of lactation. Mean mineral composition of fresh milk was ash = 1.168 ± 0.007%, Ca = 2,330 ± 20 mg/kg, P = 640 ± 10 mg/kg, K = 1,100 ± 10 mg/kg, Na = 385 ± 3 mg/kg, Mg = 138 ± 1 mg/kg, Zn = 12.5 ± 0.2 mg/kg, and Fe = 0.65 ± 0.03 mg/kg. All minerals except Mg varied by week of lactation, but variation was usually, This study was supported by projects PBI-02033 (Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha) and AGL2003-08547 (Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologia).

Several theories predict a sex-biased investment either through unbalanced sex ratios in offspring or through differences in provisioning. According to them, one would expect an optimisation in indirect fitness, or else a compensation for increased mortality of one sex. In addition, biases in provisioning may also arise as a consequence of weight-dependent non-adaptive nutrient demands by offspring. This study examines milk provisioning and sex biases in offspring sex ratio together with maternal quality variables. Mothers of higher quality (weight and age) showed greater milk provisioning ability (in terms of production) resulting in greater calf weight gain. Mothers of sons produced greater yields of milk, milk protein, fat and lactose than mothers of daughters, and increased percentage of protein after controlling for higher male birth weight. In contrast, mothers of males did not differ from mothers of females in age or any body weight variables related to maternal quality. These results suggest that differences in milk production and composition for sons and daughters are rather a mechanism to optimise indirect fitness than a mechanism to compensate for increased mortality in male calves, or a consequence of greater weight-dependent nutrient demands by heavier male calves. Results also suggest that biases in milk provisioning may occur without biases in offspring sex ratio, and furthermore, in contrast to the prediction that biases should be relative to the mean investment of the population, that milk provisioning biases might not be relative., This study was supported by European project FEDER IFD-0540, and Spanish projects CICYT-FEDER (REN2000-0513 GLO: 7879200), and JCCM PBI-02033.

In Iberian deer, calf birth date affects both milk production and composition, as well as the weight change of hind during lactation and calf growth. This study examines a five-month induced delay in calving (autumn group) in a group of 19 Iberian hinds compared to a group of 13 standard calving hinds (spring group). Fertility in the autumn group was half that of the spring one. From the former, a further two calves out of six died before or soon after birth. Successfully lactating hinds showed a greater concentration in protein, fat and lactose (P < 0.001), but did not differ from spring group in total milk yield, calf gain or weight change of hinds during lactation. However, after correcting for the greater calf or hind body weight at calving of the autumn group, this group showed lower values for these variables than the spring group. Results show that at least in Iberian deer, counter-season reproduction is possible, and that the effects on lactation variables are similar to those of a natural delay in calving., This research has been partly funded by project CICYT-FEDER(REN2000–0513 GLO: 7879200) and JCCM project PBI-02033.

This study characterized the seasonal pattern of luteal cyclicity in Iberian red deer (n=16), by measuring plasma progesterone concentrations in hinds (female red deer) twice per week from calving (May and June) 1996 until May 1997. In eight of these hinds we also examined plasma prolactin profiles to assess seasonal responses to photoperiod. Plasma progesterone concentration in the 16 hinds studied indicated that the reproductive pattern is seasonal, and lasts for 5.73 +/- 0.27 months. After calving, progesterone levels remained basal (no luteal activity) for several months, except in a hind that lost her calf just after calving, and thus did not have to suckle it. This hind showed two consecutive estrus cycles in the month following calving, which suggests that suckling has an inhibiting effect on the resumption of ovarian activity. These results also showed that as long as the hinds do not become pregnant, they show between 5 and 10 estrus cycles per reproductive season (8.06 +/- 0.35), ranging between 105 and 249 days from onset of the first cycle to end of the last one. Uninterrupted cycling lasted for 3.5-6.4 months (mean, 4.6 +/- 0.24). Cyclic luteal activity was found from October to February in all hinds, with a smaller, but notable proportion in September (56.25%) and March (68.8%), whereas it was negligible in the remaining period. Our results show a reproductive season similar to or longer than that recorded by other authors. Prolactin plasma concentrations showed a yearly trend following that of photoperiod, with peak concentrations from April to July, a decrease in August, minimal concentrations from September to February and a sharp increase in March.

In two experiments, we compared milk intake (assessed by weighing calves before and after suckling) and milk production (by hand milking hinds) in Iberian red deer both when calves sucked their mothers together (group-suckling experiment) and when mother and offspring were isolated (isolation-suckling experiment). In both experiments, the general lactation curve for calves increased to a peak and then decreased (type I, standard lactation curve in mammals), whereas the curve for hinds decreased from the start (type II). However, in the experiment on group suckling, calves ingested 17.2% more milk than that produced by their mothers from weeks 6 to 20. In both isolation- and group-suckling experiments, hinds showed an overproduction of milk decreasing from weeks 1 to 5. This decreasing overproduction coincides with a similar trend in calf mortality reported in the literature and might thus be aimed at ensuring calves have sufficient nutrients when mortality is highest. In addition, allosuckling observations in the group-suckling experiment showed an inverse relationship between milk production and percentage of allosucking attempts. Allosucking attempts were also more frequent after the milk overproduction period. Both findings suggest that allosuckling is a response to compensate for a reduced maternal milk supply., This research has been partly funded by European project FEDER no 1FD97-0540.

This study examines milk production and the effect of milk production and sex of calf on body weights and gains of red deer calves and hinds of the Iberian subspecies (Cervus elaphus hispanicus). Milk production was assessed in 14 hinds by weighing calves before and after suckling and by adjusting these values to the Gamma function. Gamma estimates of total milk production up to d 105 were similar to the amounts computed directly from double weighing. Hinds showed two types of lactation curve: 1) the standard mammal lactation curve, with an asymmetrical peak at wk 2 to 4 (Type I) and 2) decreasing curves with no peak (Type II). Although there was great interindividual variability, hinds with Type I curves showed a trend to produce more milk than those with Type II. The type of curve did not seem to affect weight variables of the calf or those of the dam. Calves that gained more weight consumed greater amounts of milk (P < .05). Males were heavier than females at birth (P < .05), but males did not differ from females in their weight at 105 d, milk consumption, and gain. Gender did not affect hind weight, but dams of male calves showed a trend to be lighter (P = .063) at d 105 than dams of female calves. Our results suggest that suckling differences found in other studies between male and female calves may not involve differences in milk production, although other rearing costs seem to affect hind weight losses. They also suggest that the curve type may not depend only, as reported, on the nutrition plane.