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Exosomes are small nanosized biovesicles that form when multivesicular bodies and the plasma membrane fuse and are released into the surrounding body fluids. They are best known for their multifunction in mediating intercellular communication by transferring various biomolecules, including DNA, RNAs, proteins, and lipids, in a short- and long-distance manner and have been identified as health and disease messengers. Importantly, exosomes are necessary for various physiological processes in health and disease. The generation of exosomes depends on the status of the disease, which usually exhibits opposite roles by inducing enhanced cellular stress and damage. Recently, exosome-based nanotechnologies have provided unprecedented opportunities to boost the developments of exosome-related biology, chemistry, pathology, and therapeutics in different diseases based on their unique structural/compositional/morphological characteristics for next-generation nanomedicines. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in exosome nanotechnology research, including their classification, isolation and preparation, constitution, biological function, and nanobiomedical applications in disease treatment and diagnosis. Furthermore, future prospects were also concluded. This review will provide more inspiration for promoting the development of exosome-based advanced theranostic nanoplatforms and nanotechnology.

Enzyme-and pH-responsive polyelectrolyte nanocapsules having diameters in the range of 200 +/- 20 nm were fabricated by means of Layer-by-Layer assembly of biopolymers, protamine, and heparin, and then loaded with anticancer drug doxorubicin. The incorporation of the FDA-approved peptide drug protamine as a wall component rendered the capsules responsive to enzyme stimuli. The stimuli-responsive drug release from these nanocapsules was evaluated, and further modulation of capsule permeability to avoid premature release was demonstrated by crosslinking the wall components. The interaction of the nanocapsules with cancer cells was studied using MCF-7 breast cancer cells. These capsules were readily internalized and disintegrated inside the cells, culminating in the release of the loaded doxorubicin and subsequent cell death as observed by confocal microscopy and MTT Assay. The bioavailability studies performed using BALB/c mice revealed that the encapsulated doxorubicin exhibited enhanced bioavailability compared to free doxorubicin. Our results indicate that this stimuli-responsive system fabricated from clinically used FDA-approved molecules and exhibiting minimal premature release has great potential for drug-delivery applications.