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Abstract This study investigated the associations of non-aerobic fitness (NAF) and motor competence (MC) with attention in 4–6 year-old preschoolers. The allocation of attentional resources and speed of stimulus categorization were examined using the amplitude and latency of P3 of event-related potentials respectively, while cortical activation related to general attention and task-specific discriminative processes were examined using event-related desynchronization (ERD) at lower (8–10 Hz) and upper (10–12 Hz) alpha frequencies, respectively. Seventy-six preschoolers completed NAF (muscular power, muscular endurance, flexibility, balance) and MC (coordination and dexterity, ball skills, agility and balance) test batteries. Electroencephalogram was recorded while participants performed an auditory oddball task. After controlling for age and MC, muscular endurance was positively related to P3 amplitude. MC and its coordination and dexterity sub-component were positively related to task performance, with higher levels of coordination and dexterity showing an additional association with greater upper alpha ERD between 700 and 1000 ms following stimulus onset after controlling for age and NAF. These findings suggest relationships of NAF and MC with early childhood neurocognitive function. Specifically, muscular endurance is related to the neuroinhibition in facilitating effective allocation of attentional resources to stimulus evaluation while coordination and dexterity are related to cortical activation underlying strategic attentional preparation for subsequent stimulus evaluation.

Abstract It is difficult to draw conclusions about the effect of resistance exercises on information processing speed and inhibitory control from previous studies due to possible underestimations of maximal strength and the lack of information on the intervention programs. To address this issue, a familiarization of resistance exercise was introduced before the strength test, and the repetition-to-fatigue method was used to calculate the 1RM (one repetition max). A two-arm RCT was conducted to evaluate the cognitive effect of resistance exercise. Male adults aged 50–65 years old performed a single bout of multiple joint, structural barbell resistance exercises (back squat, press, and deadlift) with 75% 1RM * 5 repetitions * 3 sets with 2–3 min rest between sets and exercises or a stretching exercise session (active-control intervention). This type of resistance exercise improved the information processing speed measured by Stroop task reaction time (t(23) = − 2.313, p = .030, M = − 16 ms, 95% CI [− 30, − 2]) and decreased the conflict-related neural activity measured by event-related potential N2b in both congruent (t(20) = 2.674, p = .015, M = 2.290 μv, 95% CI [0.504, 4.075]) and incongruent (t(20) = 2.851, p = .018, M = 2.291 μv, 95% CI [0.439, 4.142]) conditions. Resistance exercise significantly improved information processing speed and decrease conflict-related neural activity, but did not change inhibitory control in older adults compared to active control. Trial registration: NCT04534374 (01/09/2020).

Abstract Background There is an increasing prevalence of physical inactivity during childhood, which is associated with a variety of health problems. However, the mechanisms by which acute exercise benefits cognition in childhood remains unknown. Here we describe the protocol for a randomized crossover trial called SNEACY (Sympathetic Nervous System & Exercise Affects Cognition in Youth), a study designed to better understand mechanisms linking acute exercise and cognition in 9–10-year-old healthy, cognitively normal children. Methods Children from the Greater Boston, MA region will be recruited to participate in this single center study. A randomized crossover design will be utilized, such that participants will act as their own controls, through initial randomization to condition assignment and condition counterbalancing across participants. One hundred three children will participate in three randomized acute interventions: moderate intensity treadmill exercise (20 min, 70–75% of their maximal heart rate), seated rest (20 min), and a Trier Social Stress Test for Children (14 min). These visits will occur on 3 three separate days, approximately 5–8 days apart. Before and after each intervention, children complete a variety of cognitive tasks measuring attentional inhibition while their neuroelectric activity is recorded. Variables of interest include EEG data, accuracy and reaction time, academic achievement, and salivary alpha amylase. Academic achievement is also assessed following interventions. In addition, children provide passive drool samples throughout the interventions to measure various biomarkers that may explain the acute exercise benefit on cognition. Discussion The results from this study could influence educational and public health recommendations to enhance cognition and learning in pre-adolescent children. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03592238 . Registered on 19 July 2018

Abstract Background The objective of the current study was to examine whether the relation between aerobic fitness and academic achievement during adolescence is subject-dependent, and to investigate cumulative and recency effects. Methods This study made use of two nationwide datasets. The first was the aerobic fitness profile of junior high school students collected by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan. The second contained the scores on the Basic Competence Test for Junior High School Students (BCTJH). The sample consisted of 382,259 students who completed the BCTJH in the 5 years between 2009 and 2013. Data on each student’s aerobic fitness during their three years of junior high school were matched with their exam results at the end of this period. Results The results revealed that students classified as highly-fit during at least one of the three years had higher BCTJH scores than those who never achieved this level, with the size of effect increasing with the length of time that fitness was maintained. Additionally, aerobic fitness in the final year was more closely linked to BCTJH scores than that in the earlier two years. Fitness was also more strongly associated with exam performance in math, science and social science, relative to language-related subjects. Conclusions Our findings suggest that while aerobic fitness is positively related to academic achievement in Taiwanese junior high school students, the relationship depends on academic subject, as well as the length and time of being aerobically fit.

The present study aimed to examine whether the effect of acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is moderated by exercise intensity. Using a within-subjects design, 25 children with ADHD completed a flanker task with concurrent collection of electroencephalography (EEG) data after three different intensities of treadmill running. The results showed that low- and moderate-intensity exercises resulted in shorter reaction times (RTs) relative to vigorous-intensity exercise during the incompatible condition of the flanker task regardless of task congruency. A P3 congruency effect was observed following low- and vigorous-intensity exercises but not after moderate-intensity exercise. The mean alpha power, a measure of cortical arousal, increased following low- and moderate-intensity exercises but decreased following vigorous-intensity exercise. In addition, the change in arousal level after moderate-intensity exercise was negatively correlated with RT during incompatible flanker tasks. The current findings suggest that children with ADHD have better inhibitory control following both low- and moderate-intensity exercises relative to vigorous aerobic exercise, which could be characterized by an optimal state of cortical arousal.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of open and closed sport participation on visuo-spatial attention and memory performance among young adults. Forty-eight young adults—16 open-skill athletes, 16 closed-skill athletes, and 16 non-athletes controls—were recruited for the study. Both behavioral performance and event-related potential (ERP) measurement were assessed when participants performed non-delayed and delayed match-to-sample task that tested visuo-spatial attention and memory processing. Results demonstrated that regardless of training typology, the athlete groups exhibited shorter reaction times in both the visuo-spatial attention and memory conditions than the control group with no existence of speed-accuracy trade-off. Similarly, a larger P3 amplitudes were observed in both athlete groups than in the control group for the visuo-spatial memory condition. These findings suggest that sports training, regardless of typology, are associated with superior visuo-spatial attention and memory performance, and more efficient neural resource allocation in memory processing.

Purpose: A growing body of evidence has demonstrated the positive effects of physical exercise on cognition in children, and recent studies have specifically investigated the cognitive benefits of exercises involving cognitive-motor interactions, such as gymnastics. This study examined the effect of 8 wk of gymnastics training on behavioral and neurophysiological measures of spatial working memory in children. Methods: Forty-four children age 7 to 10 yr were recruited. The experimental group (n = 24; age, 8.7 ± 1.1 yr) was recruited from Yilan County in Taiwan, while the control group (n = 20; age, 8.6 ± 1.1 yr) resided in Taipei City. The experimental group undertook 8 wk of after-school gymnastics training (2 sessions per week, 90 min per session), whereas the control group received no intervention and were instructed to maintain their routine daily activities. Working memory was assessed by performance on a modified delayed match-to-sample test and by event-related potential including the P3 component. Data were collected before and after treatment for the experimental group and at the same time interval for the control group. Results: Response accuracy improved after the experimental intervention regardless of working memory demands. Likewise, the P3 amplitude was larger at the parietal site after gymnastics training regardless of the task difficulty. Conclusions: Our results suggest that a short period of gymnastics training had a general facilitative effect on spatial working memory at both behavioral and neurophysiological levels in children. These finding highlight the potential importance of exercise programs involving cognitive-motor interactions in stimulating development of spatial cognition during childhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine whether working memory performance is differentiated by higher and lower physical functional capacities in the elderly. Forty-six healthy, active older males aged 65-75 years were assigned into either a Higher-capacity group (HC group; n = 23) or Lower-capacity group (LC group; n = 23) based on the median split of their distance walked in the 6-min walking test, an assessment tool for physical functional capacity. The Sternberg working memory paradigm was employed to measure working memory performance, where data on reaction times (RT) and response accuracy were collected as performance indices. Results demonstrated that the HC group had faster RT compared with the LC group. No group difference in response accuracy was observed. Overall, the study indicated that working memory performance may be differentiated by physical functional capacity in healthy, active older males. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]