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Virtual reality and databases are two technological domains employed in many scientific fields. In archeology, several works are being developed along these lines. This paper presents the workflow for the creation of an executable virtual reality: it integrates a virtualization of the archaeological site of Venta Micena (Granada, Spain) and a database of some of the most relevant archaeological remains from that site. The strength and novelty of this project are that it allows any user or researcher to walk through the archaeological site, pick up and put down any of the remains found there, access the database of the archaeological remains from any place and time, and visualize them in stereoscopic mode, which could unveil new information and conclusions. This document moreover discusses the contributions and possible limitations of this type of technology, as well as key concepts and the significance of archaeological excavation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the discovery of Venta Micena in 1976 until now, the Orce archaeopalaeontological sites (Guadix Baza basin) in the northern part of Granada have contributed significantly to the body of knowledge on Early Pleistocene ecosystem dynamics. The exceptional fossil accumulation at Venta Micena stands out, housing important examples of early Pleistocene European faunas. Additionally, the discovery of new sites such as Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3 has yielded evidence of some of the oldest human presence in western Eurasia, alongside bones bearing cut and percussion marks made by stone tools. These discoveries were made by using novel techniques and methodology, allowing for new interpretations of the fossil record. Integration of artificial intelligence and geometric morphometrics applied to fossil studies contributed to better understanding of the genesis of the sites, and to unravelling the role of humans and other mammals in creating fossil accumulations at the Orce sites. At Barranco León, Canis mosbachensis was found to be the most active carnivore and not, as earlier thought, the large hyaena Pachycrocuta brevirostris. At Fuente Nueva 3, large saber-toothed cats seem to be the top consumers of carcasses. This evidence suggests the existence of more complex associations between humans and various carnivorous taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lithic assemblage of Barranco León (BL), attributed to the Oldowan techno-complex, contributes valuable information to reconstruct behavioral patterning of the first hominins to disperse into Western Europe. This archaic stone tool assemblage comprises two, very different groups of tools, made from distinct raw materials. On the one hand, a small-sized toolkit knapped from Jurassic flint, comprising intensively exploited cores and small-sized flakes and fragments and, on the other hand, a large-sized limestone toolkit that is mainly linked to percussive activities. In recent years, the limestone macro-tools have been the center of particular attention, leading to a re-evaluation of their role in the assemblage. Main results bring to light strict hominin selective processes, mainly concerning the quality of the limestone and the morphology of the cobbles, in relation to their use-patterning. In addition to the variety of traces of percussion identified on the limestone tools, recurrences have recently been documented in their positioning and in the morphology of the active surfaces. Coupled with experimental work, this data has contributed to formulating hypothesis about the range of uses for these tools, beyond stone knapping and butchery, for activities such as: wood-working or tendon and meat tenderizing. The abundance of hammerstones, as well as the presence of heavy-duty scrapers, are special features recognized for the limestone component of the Barranco León assemblage. This paper presents, for the first time, another characteristic of the assemblage: the presence of polyhedral and, especially, subspheroid morphologies, virtually unknown in the European context for this timeframe. We present an analysis of these tools, combining qualitative evaluation of the raw materials, diacritical study, 3D geometric morphometric analysis of facet angles and an evaluation of the type and position of percussive traces; opening up the discussion of the late Oldowan beyond the African context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing is a useful tool for the documentation of archaeological sites. The products derived from a photogrammetric project applied to archaeology such as orthophotos and three-dimensional virtual reconstruction (3DVR), allow for detailed study of the Fuente Nueva 3 site in Orce. In our study of the Fuente Nueva 3 site in Orce, we used 3DVR intensively to map out the morphometric features of mammoth tusks exposed on the surface and a geological fault affecting the site's deposits. To do so, we used imagery captured since 2017 in order to follow the evolution of ongoing excavations during each subsequent field season. We also integrated the 3DVR model in a videogame environment, to create a virtual reality (VR) that allows a VR navigation experience around the scenario using a head mounted display like Oculus Rift. The main features of this VR experience are: (1) It is ideal for the diffusion of archaeological contents since it permits an attractive presentation mode thanks to stereo visualization and realistic immersion sensations; (2) it provides a high level of detail all along the navigation experience, without incurring any damage to the archaeological remains; (3) it allows users to observe more details than they would in an in situ visit to the site; (4) it makes it possible to convert an archaeological site into portable heritage, opening up the possibility to extend visits to vulnerable groups: specifically those with reduced mobility. Our results show that using VR should permit enhancements to a visitor's experience and contribute to the socio-economic development of the town of Orce, one of the Spanish municipalities with the lowest income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Venta Micena (Orce, Guadix-Baza Basin, Spain) is an Early Pleistocene locality renowned for the richness and quality of its palaeontological record. VM is spread over an area of 2.5 km2, where several exposed fossil outcrops are visible amidst its gorges and ravines. The best known of these sites, VM3, has been interpreted as a hyaena den. In addition, a new site, named VM4, has recently been the focus of fieldwork and taphonomic studies. The publication by Luzón et al. (2021) pointed out that VM4 presents a more complex history than VM3. First, two different sub-levels were identified: VM4-I and VM4-II. Secondly, the preliminary taphonomic analysis showed conspicuous differences with regard to VM3. Nevertheless, such interpretation has been challenged by Palmqvist et al. (2022) who proposed that VM3 and VM4 are both the result of a single depositional process, entailing the selective transport of skeletal parts by the giant extinct hyaena Pachycrocuta brevirostris back to its den. Using well-preserved faunal elements whose depositional context and provenance are reliable, in this paper we show that: 1) there are two clearly defined sub-levels in VM4 with some shared taphonomic characteristics as well as some notable differences; 2) VM3 and VM4 exhibit enough divergence to support differences in site formation processes; 3) The interpretation of both VM4-I and VM4-II is more consistent with their characterisation as open-air sites in which multiple agents and depositional processes contributed to its formation, rather than with hyaena dens. Nevertheless, excavations are still in progress at VM4 and therefore any results and interpretations ought to be considered as provisional. • VM3 has been interpreted as a hyaena den. • VM4 presents a more complex history than VM3. • VM4-II, is more consistent with an open-air site. • VM4 is not a carnivore den site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Barranco León (Orce, Guadix Baza, Spain) is one of the sites with the oldest evidence of human activity in south-western Europe. This site has yielded human remains in association with both fauna and lithic artefacts, linked through the presence of anthropogenic cut and percussion marks. Nevertheless, while this site is a clear example of early hominin access to carcasses, the accumulations have been identified as a palimpsest, where multiple agents including carnivorans played a role in modifying and interacting in site formation processes. From this perspective, the interpretation and study of the Barranco León site is of great difficulty. Traditionally, interpretations have presented Barranco León as an area where hominins as well as the giant hyena, Pachycrocuta brevirostris, competed for access to carcasses left by machairodontine felids, such as the saber-toothed Homotherium latidens. Nevertheless, as will be presented in this study, the complexity and trophic pressure of Barranco León is much more complicated than originally hypothesized. This study presents a detailed taphonomic analysis of carnivoran activities in the level D1 of the Barranco León assemblage. 3D modelling, geometric morphometrics, and computational learning are used to provide new insights into the tooth pits observed on faunal materials. Here we show that Canis mosbachensis plays a pivotal role in the formation of the site, followed by Pachycrocuta, Homotherium, Ursus etruscus, and Xenocyon (Lycaon) lycaonoides. From this perspective, it can be seen that while Pachycrocuta and Homotherium were active agents in the formation of the site, other carnivorans are also important agents to consider when investigating the Guadix Baza region. • Geometric Morphometrics can be used as a tool to detect extinct carnivore species. • Canis mosbachensis is most likely an important carnivoran agent in Guadix Baza. • Giant hyena activity has also been sporadically confirmed in Barranco León. • Saber-tooth felids have also been found to sporadically leave marks in Barranco León. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]