Search

Many museums deal with socio-scientific issues--meaning topics with multiple perspectives and ongoing research, such as climate change, vaccinations, or livestock farming. As important and trusted sources of science education, museums can play a critical role in raising awareness about such issues. They tend to highlight the various perspectives on the topic and thereby are able to provide a balanced and impartial information presentation. Visitors are therefore confronted both with views that correspond to their own beliefs and with views that contradict their beliefs and are supported in developing an informed opinion on the respective topic. In our study, we used an experimental exhibition on the topic "animal husbandry" to investigate the extent to which, first, an exhibition visit in general and, second, how different picture captions affect knowledge acquisition and interest. We chose a between-subjects design with the factor conflict framing through picture captions. Whereas one group visited an exhibition in which the picture captions were formulated neutrally, another group read picture captions that emphasized the existing conflict. A control group, which did not visit the exhibition at all, allowed us to examine the general effect of the exhibition. As dependent variables, we chose interest and knowledge acquisition as common instruments of educational visitor research. However, we went one step further and used an innovative instrument: visitors' argument repertoire. We found that visiting the exhibition led to higher interest, knowledge acquisition, and a more balanced argument repertoire. Varying the captions had no significant effect. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Based on previous research on multimedia learning and text comprehension, an eye-tracking study was conducted to examine the influence of audio text coherence on visual attention and memory in a multimedia learning situation with a focus on picture comprehension. Audio text coherence was manipulated by the type of LDI structure, that is, whether localization, description, and interpretation followed in immediate succession for each pictorial detail or whether localizations and description of details were separated from their interpretation. Results show that with a LDI integrated structure compared to a LDI separated structure the referred-to picture elements were fixated longer during interpretation parts, and linkages between descriptions and interpretations were better recalled and recognized. The effects on recall and recognition of linkages were fully mediated by fixation times. This pattern of results can be explained by an interplay between audio text coherence and dual coding processes. It points out the importance of local coherence and the provision of localization information in audio explanations as well as visual attention to allow for dual coding processes that can be used to better attribute meaning to picture details. Practical implications for the design of educational videos, audio texts on websites, and audio guides are discussed.

Based on the knowledge generation model for visual analytics including uncertainty propagation and human trust building (Sacha et al. 2016), the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2014), the multimedia principle (Butcher, 2014), and previous studies on the effects of different uncertainty visualization styles, an integrated theoretical approach is proposed to examine the influence of different degrees of information uncertainty and different uncertainty visualization styles on processing pictures of two archeological reconstructions with accompanying audio explanations presented in a multimedia learning environment. A 4 × 3 design with condition (without uncertainty visualization vs. stop light colors vs. geometric contrast vs. both uncertainty visualizations) as the between-subjects factor and uncertainty value (uncertain vs. medium vs. certain) as the within-subject factor was used. The results showed that appearance of certain content, its uncertainty values, and their verbal scientific justifications were remembered better than uncertain ones. Furthermore, stop light colors enhanced the memory of uncertainty values compared to no uncertainty visualization and were better understood, discriminated, and transferred than geometric contrast. Geometric contrast decreased the memory of the appearance of uncertain architectural elements compared to no uncertainty visualization and was better than stop light colors regarding the memory of the appearance of certain architectural elements. The study integrates and extends existing theories by showing that certain contents are processed with higher priority than uncertain contents and that the multimedia effect is also valid for metainformation such as the uncertainties of contents. Finally, recommendations for designing learning material including uncertainty visualizations are given.

Based on theories of multimedia learning, the present study investigated whether the haptic sense serves as an additional channel to enhance the learning experience and learning outcomes. We therefore set up an experimental exhibition with two showrooms. In the first showroom, the sensory access of the participants to the exhibition objects was systematically varied in a 2 × 2 design with the between-subjects factors vision and haptics. While one group of participants could touch and see the objects, others could either only see or only touch them. The fourth group of participants found a showroom without objects. To address the auditory access, all participants were provided with information about each object via an audio guide. In the second showroom, further information was presented using posters. This showroom was the same for every participant. We aimed to investigate whether the haptic experience in the first showroom served as a motivator to engage further with the topic. The participants filled out questionnaires before visiting the first showroom, after visiting the first showroom, and after visiting the second showroom. To investigate the differences between the experimental groups on different outcomes, a memory test, a knowledge test, and various motivational-affective scales were used. The long-term effects of the information presentation were measured after 3 weeks. We found an advantage for recalling the objects and a heightened negative affect due to the haptic experience. Implications and further directions for this research will be discussed.

Events and activities consist not only of sequences of individual actions, but also they form hierarchies comprising chains of low-level actions grouped together to form higher level activities. Therefore, observers face the task of not only segmenting a continuous event stream into discrete units, but also processing these units on an appropriate level of aggregation. In 3 experiments, we show that for events observed in an incomplete, piecemeal manner, the temporal extension of event gaps influences the level of hierarchy at which an observer processes the presented event (Experiments 1a and 1b) and that the level of hierarchy is also transferred to an anticipated subsequent event (Experiment 2). Participants viewed film clips showing everyday activities with short or long temporal gaps between the successive shots presenting different aspects of the same activity. The participants' levels of processing were captured via the cued recall of their descriptions of what they had seen in the film clip or via the formulations they used when describing what they expected to happen next. Our findings suggest an extended model of event cognition: Viewers aim to represent events continuously and therefore extrapolate in the case of gaps by shifting to higher levels of description.

Two experiments investigated the effects of an instructional video's setting on learners' retention and application of the video content. Experiment 1 explored competing hypotheses based on theoretical assumptions about whether an authentic setting would serve as a distraction or as a cue for the instructor's expertise. Participants (N = 59) watched a video about floral diagrams and floral formulas that was either shot in a greenhouse (authentic setting) or in front of a white wall (neutral setting). Results showed a beneficial effect of the authentic setting on retention, but not on the application of the video content. Experiment 2 aimed to replicate and extend these findings by investigating whether reinstating the authentic setting as a contextual cue during the test phase would further improve test performance. After watching a video that was either shot in an authentic or a neutral setting, participants (N = 149) worked on the retention and application test while a screenshot of the authentic or the neutral setting was presented as a background. Contrary to our expectations, the effect of setting on retention did not replicate and there was no evidence for context effects, despite using the same learning materials and a comparable sample as in Experiment 1. Findings are discussed with regard to potential boundary conditions.

Multimedia learning scenarios in which a picture is the main focus often use combinations of verbal and visual cueing. Based on models of picture processing and multimedia learning, the present study examined the effect of verbal and visual cueing on two basic aspects of pictorial learning: retention and localization of pictorial elements. Videos of three paintings were presented with verbal cueing (naming of pictorial elements), either alone or in combination with visual frames (explicit cues) or zoom-ins (implicit cues), in a 2 × 3 × 3 mixed design (n = 86) with the factors verbal cueing (uncued vs. cued elements, within-subjects) × visual cueing (no vs. explicit vs. implicit, between-subjects) × film (Mantegna vs. Rubens vs. Marsh, within-subjects). The three films were used to check whether our results are generalizable across different pictorial contents. The retention of pictorial elements was measured by open questions, and the localization of the pictorial elements was measured by asking the participants to place picture snippets at the correct location on an area representing the dimensions of the respective painting. The combination of verbal and visual cueing increased the difference between the cued and the less well retained uncued elements and compensated a disadvantage of verbal cueing for localization performance. This was compensated by both types of visual cueing. Regarding retention and localization, explicit and implicit cueing were equally effective. The study provides a differentiated insight into the interplay of verbal and visual cueing regarding cognitive processing in multimedia learning scenarios in which pictures are the main learning focus.

Previous research has demonstrated that cognitive offloading (i.e., externalizing mental processes) is useful for immediate problem solving. However, long-term effects of cognitive offloading on subsequent problem solving without offloading are remarkably understudied. Our main goal was to investigate the effects of representation control (i.e., adjusting the format of the representation to task requirements) on incidental procedural learning in an information extraction task with interactive visualizations. More specifically, we tested how the availability of representation control for solving tasks in a practice phase affects procedural learning measured in a testing phase in which representation control is no longer available. In both phases, we explored time on task as well as proportion correct as proxies of task performance and analyzed how often participants used representation control. We conducted three experiments in which participants could modify and reorganize information displays in the practice phase, whereas in the testing phase, they had to solve equivalent and near transfer problems without this offloading opportunity. We show that representation control is beneficial for immediate task solution, particularly for problems that require a spatial transformation. This benefit was more pronounced for automated (i.e., system-controlled) types of control (Experiment 3). In contrast, in subsequent problem solving without representation control (up to 24 hr later), participants who had been using representation control previously fell back to the level of an untrained baseline condition (Experiments 1 and 2). However, the detrimental effect of representation control was confined to equivalent tasks and did not generalize to a near transfer task.

Previous research from in and outside museums suggests that the haptic exploration of surfaces and objects have various educational benefits and can positively influence the museum visit experience. However, there is still a need for more research on the potential effects of object handling on museum learning, especially in science museums. The present study attempts to fill this research gap by investigating differences in museum visitors' science learning when presenting them with photos of objects, real objects, or objects that can be handled. We used a multi-criteria approach in which we examined both cognitive and motivational-affective aspects. We found that the participants who were allowed to haptically explore the exhibition's objects showed a higher recollection of the objects and accompanying text topics and reported a higher perceived autonomy compared to the participants in the other two experimental conditions. Unexpectedly, for situational interest as well as for positive and negative affect, the participants in the photo-condition reported higher values than the participants in the other two conditions. Implications for instructional uses of tangible objects and further directions for research are discussed.

In formal and informal learning settings corresponding information units are often arranged in the space around the viewer. For example, teachers pin task relevant information on classroom walls, or museum curators arrange exhibits in museum halls. Often learners and visitors are expected to see meaningful relationships between these information units. Theoretically, Gestalt Psychology has been examining the effects of connecting and separating elements in visual information displays, leading to the question of whether these findings also hold in three-dimensional environments. Does the mostly rectangular form of our rooms also either highlight or downplay relations between information dispersed across a room? Three experiments using virtual rooms showed that the matching pairs of pictures were memorized better if both pictures were arranged on the same wall instead of across two adjacent walls: that is, the presence of a room corner between matching pairs decreased memory (Experiments 1–3). Additionally, the findings showed that the participants' orientation of their central field of view during learning influenced the effect of corners on memory. When initially looking around in rooms, participants most often oriented the center of their field of view toward the middle of a wall (Experiments 1 and 2); however, if they were restricted to orienting their field of view toward corners, the corner effect on memory vanished (Experiment 3). These findings suggest that room characteristics influence the exploratory behavior of viewers, thereby also affecting their memories of the presented information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the impact of digital technologies on autobiographical remembering and proposes the AMEDIA-Model as a framework for understanding this process. It highlights the ways in which individuals use digital resources to encode, curate, and retrieve memories, and emphasizes the dynamic and reconstructive nature of remembering. The article acknowledges both the positive and negative effects of incorporating high-tech external resources in memory ecologies and calls for further empirical research in this area. It also discusses the role of feedback loops, the social dimension of remembering, interindividual differences, and the need for interdisciplinary cooperation in studying autobiographical remembering in the digital age. [Extracted from the article]

Recent technological developments have led to an increased density of recorded life episodes. To understand how creating and sharing such immense amounts of data shapes the way individuals remember their past, we propose a model for autobiographical memory in the digital age (AMEDIA-Model) that systematizes the existing literature and sketches avenues for future research. The model views autobiographical remembering in the digital age as the result of the iterative process of combining information stored in the mind and information stored in the environment using high-tech applications. Moreover, the way autobiographical memories are (re-)constructed crucially depends on the way the information has been encoded and curated: Autobiographical remembering in the digital age is not a uniform process but is fundamentally shaped by the technology and the data that is being used. The AMEDIA-Model offers a framework for understanding technology-mediated human cognition in the twenty-first century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we investigated the role of digital zoom as a tool for directing attention while looking at visual learning material. In particular, we analyzed whether minimal digital zoom functions similarly to a rhetorical device by cueing mental zooming of attention accordingly. Participants were presented either static film clips, film clips with minimal zoom-ins, or film clips with minimal zoom-outs while eye movements were recorded. We hypothesized that minimal zoom-ins should lead to more gaze coherence, to longer dwell times as an indicator of more elaborative processing, and to fewer transitions as an indicator of less mental integration. Zoom-outs, on the other hand, were expected to have opposite effects. Results showed that zoom-ins increase gaze coherence and dwell times on the center parts of the depictions while decreasing transitions of pictorial elements from the center and the context areas. In contrast, patterns of results from zoom-outs and static presentations were similar to a large degree, indicating that zoom-ins and zoom-outs do not operate in a complementary fashion. Theoretical and practical implications of the present results are discussed.

In a series of experiments, we tested a recently proposed hypothesis stating that the degree of alignment between the form of a mental representation resulting from learning with a particular visualization format and the specific requirements of a learning task determines learning performance (task-appropriateness). Groups of participants were required to learn the stroke configuration, the stroke order, or the stroke directions of a set of Chinese pseudocharacters. For each learning task, participants were divided into groups receiving dynamic, static-sequential, or static visualizations. An old/new character recognition task was given at test. The results showed that learning both stroke configuration and stroke order was best with static pictures (Experiments 1 and 2), while there was no reliable difference between the groups for learning stroke direction (Experiment 3). An additional experiment, however, revealed that learning with sequential pictures was superior when testing was carried out with sequential pictures, irrespective of the learning task (Experiment 4). The combined evidence from all experiments speaks against task requirements playing a role in determining the effectiveness of a visualization format. Furthermore, the evidence supports the view that a high degree of congruence between information presented during learning and information presented at test results in better learning (study-test congruence). Implications for instructional design are discussed.

While to date, multimedia research has examined mainly the learning of texts with accompanying pictures, in the current paper, 2 experiments are presented that examine the multimedia effect for pictures with accompanying spoken text. In Experiment 1, we examined whether learning is better with a multimedia presentation in which pictorial information is verbally referenced than without such referencing. Further, it was examined whether pictorial information within a single presentation is better learned when it is verbally referenced than not referenced. The results show that the pictures with accompanying audio text in which the single elements of the picture were named were better learned (free recall, multiple choice, visual recognition) than the pictures with the elements not having been named in the audio text. Furthermore, within a single presentation, named elements were better learned than unnamed elements. Further, Experiment 2 examined by eye-tracking whether the multimedia effect is due to a shift of attention toward the elements presented multimodally and away from those presented unimodally. The multimedia effect could be replicated and the postulated shift of attention as an underlying process of the multimedia effect could also be confirmed. There were longer fixation times for the named and shorter fixations times for the unnamed elements of the picture in the verbal referencing part compared to the nonverbal referencing parts of the audio text. Finally, gaze synchrony of the learners was higher for time points of naming pictorial elements than for time points of no naming.

One characteristic of science centers and science museums is that they communicate scientific findings by presenting real scientific objects. In particular, science museums focus on the historical context of scientific discoveries by displaying authentic objects, defined as original objects that once served a science-related, real-world purpose and bear some significance for the history of science. However, almost nothing is known about the respective role of authentic objects. By displaying a set of objects either as originals or replicas in a large museum of the history of science and technology, we examined the relevance of authentic objects for museum visitors. An extensive set of interviews unveiled four dimensions of authenticity, interestingly not only connected with the historical significance of the objects but also with their science-related functionality. Furthermore, it revealed a multitude of criteria for the evaluation of objects that were mostly independent of authenticity but instead referred to the objects' provision of insights into scientific and technological principles. Thus, the study shows that it should be of great importance to complement authentic objects with features that provide additional science-related information. How this connection can be most successful requires further research.

This study was concerned with identifying prerequisites for the successful use of videos that offer different levels of interactivity. In a homework scenario, 64 ninth graders participated either in a search training demonstrating the efficient use of features facilitating the selection of relevant information or in a control training focusing on the integration of new information with prior knowledge. Following the training, the participants used either a common video that allowed them to control the transient flow of the information via stop and browsing or an enhanced video that additionally facilitated the localization of information via chapter selection and an index. Overall, the students wrote two essays (Essay 1: summary; Essay 2: argument) and performed a search task. The study revealed that, independent of the training condition, students benefitted from the enhanced video for the search task which merely required naming isolated facts. Moreover, in a summary task, the enhanced video resulted in the consideration of information from more different chapters when the task required gathering information from the video; however, this broader consideration of chapters only translated into naming more information after the search training. The data of a second essay requiring inferences about the video's contents (argument) were not analyzed due to a floor effect. Taken together, these results indicate that the characteristics of a task as well as the students' knowledge of respective search strategies need to be considered when implementing interactive features in video environments.

Science museums, science centers, zoos, and aquariums (MCZAs) constitute major settings of science learning with unique characteristics of informal science education. Emphasis will be given to the analysis of four specific characteristics of MCZAs that seem relevant for educational research and practice, namely, conditions of mixed motives and goals, staged popular science, and impact of physical layout, as well as the role of social exchange and participation. By doing so, we focus on the consequences of these characteristics for the learning processes and outcomes of visits of MCZAs. We show that outcomes encompass not only knowledge acquisition in a narrower sense but also changes in interest and beliefs.

The present article examines how suitable expository films are for learning. This question was motivated by the assumption that films are processed in a superficial manner. However, previous research has been dominated by the analyses of outcome measures and has never taken a look at online measures so that no clear conclusions have been drawn. Experiment 1 analyzed online local causal bridging inferences that are crucial for the understanding of complex scientific matters. Using a naming paradigm, it could be demonstrated that local causal bridging inferences are generated during film reception. This holds true for film viewers and audiotape listeners. Experiment 2 analyzed whether participants were able to integrate the inferred information into a coherent mental model. We found that for at least one item set, both film viewers and audiotape listeners integrated implicit information into a mental model. To further clarify the role of the pictorial information in films for the comprehension process, Experiment 3 analyzed the extent to which pictorial information can compensate for coherence breaks due to missing verbal information in the auditory channel. We found that, on a local level, pictorial information can compensate for missing verbal information, but not on a global level. (Contains 3 tables and 2 footnotes.)

Motor skills are often demonstrated with a combination of verbal information and video demonstration. In this study, participants learned to tie nautical knots with a video clip demonstrating the motor task preceded by a descriptive or a metaphorical, picture-like verbalization. In a control condition participants learned the knots with a video demonstration only. We expected the verbalization to guide participants' attention while watching the video demonstration. Thus, we hypothesized higher performance in the verbalization-conditions compared to the control condition ("general verbal facilitation effect"). Further, as the metaphorical verbalizations provide mental cues (e.g., rhymes) we expected higher performance in the metaphorical verbalization-condition than in the descriptive verbalization-condition ("specific verbal facilitation effect"). Behavioral measures immediately after learning and two days after initial learning showed a general and a specific verbal facilitation effect. We discuss these results with respect to recent findings in multimedia research. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

The literature on learning with animations has focused so far on subject matters in which changes over time depicted in the animation are mapped onto changes over time in the reality of the concepts to be learned. The experiments presented in this article, however, suggest that also a nontemporal mapping of facts, as in paired-associate learning with visual mnemonics, can profit from temporally changing displays. In 2 experiments, Sino-Japanese characters and their meanings were learned with either static pictures or animated morphs as visual encoding mnemonics. The results show that both types of encoding mnemonics improved paired-associate learning compared to a nonmnemonic control group. The positive effects of encoding mnemonics remained stable over a period of 1 week. Experiment 1 showed a superiority of static pictures over animated morphs. However, this effect disappeared when the relative length of presentation time of characters and pictures in both static and animated mnemonic conditions was held constant (Experiment 2). Furthermore, how good a character's visual shape represents its associated meaning seems to be a powerful predictor of learning, regardless of learning method. The results are interpreted in terms of task-appropriate mental representations resulting from static and animated mnemonics, in particular the availability and the extractability of cues in a visual display. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

This study examined how hybrid documentary formats, which embed educational contents into narratives, are cognitively processed. Based on existing research and theories, two reception modes were identified: processing with a focus on the narrative plotline and processing with a focus on the thematic structure. In two experiments, two markers of narrative processing could be found for hybrid television documentaries: the experience of transportation and the narrative distance effect. In the first experiment, it could be shown that re-enactments and personal variables enhance the experience of transportation. The second experiment confirmed the narrative distance effect, which occurs independently of reception goals. This means that educational facts which are closely tied to the narrative plotline were learned better than distant facts, regardless of whether the recipients watched the documentary for information or entertainment purposes. The study supplements prior theories on hybrid processing and provides conditions under which narratives are appropriate for learning.

Two complementary studies, one in the laboratory and one in the field, compared the usage patterns and the effectiveness of interactive videos and illustrated textbooks when German secondary school students learned complex content. For this purpose, two videos affording different degrees of interactivity and a content-equivalent illustrated textbook were used. Both studies showed that in contrast to previous studies working with non-interactive videos, the effectiveness of interactive videos was at least comparable to that of print, probably due to the possibilities provided for self-regulated information processing. It was shown that the interactive features of the videos were used spontaneously. However, features enabling micro-level activities, such as stopping the video or browsing, seemed to be more beneficial for learning than features enabling macro-level activities, such as referring to a table of contents or an index. This finding is explained by students' misconceptions about the use of features enabling macro-level activities. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

The visual recognition of dynamic scenes was examined. The authors hypothesized that the notion of canonical views, which has received strong empirical support for static objects, also holds for dynamic scenes. In Experiment 1, viewpoints orthogonal to the main axis of movement in the scene were preferred over other viewpoints, whereas viewpoints in line with the main axis were least preferred. Experiment 2 provided no empirical evidence for a recognition advantage of canonical viewpoints when presented during the initial learning phase, but Experiment 3 showed a cognitive advantage for canonical viewpoints if they were presented as test stimuli during the recognition test. Overall, the findings suggest that on a phenomenological level, viewers are consciously aware of such viewpoints, and, on a cognitive level, viewers benefit from canonical viewpoints in terms of recognition accuracy. (Contains 2 footnotes and 7 figures.)

In contrast to their traditional, non-interactive counterparts, interactive dynamic visualisations allow users to adapt their form and content to their individual cognitive skills and needs. Provided that the interactive features allow for intuitive use without increasing cognitive load, interactive videos should therefore lead to more efficient forms of learning. This notion was tested in an experimental study, where participants learned to tie four nautical knots of different complexity by watching either non-interactive or interactive videos. The results show that in the interactive condition, participants used the interactive features like stopping, replaying, reversing or changing speed to adapt the pace of the video demonstration. This led to an uneven distribution of their attention and cognitive resources across the videos, which was more pronounced for the difficult knots. Consequently users of non-interactive video presentations, needed substantially more time than users of the interactive videos to acquire the necessary skills for tying the knots.

In this article, we discuss the results of an experiment in which we studied two apparently conflicting classes of design principles for instructional hypervideos: (1) those principles derived from work on multimedia learning that emphasize spatio-temporal contiguity and (2) those originating from work on hypermedia learning that favour user-friendly interfaces. Four hypervideos differing in the position and number of hyperlinks were compared to one another and to a control condition in an experimental learning situation. Participants (N=74) were novices in relation to the topic. During learning, students' navigation behaviour was recorded. Knowledge acquisition was tested by comparing pre- and post-test measures. Results indicate that both navigation and knowledge acquisition were not significantly influenced by the design parameters. However, individual characteristics of navigation behaviour were significantly and positively correlated with knowledge acquisition.

Describes a study of computer conferencing where learners interacted over the course of four log-in sessions to acquire the knowledge sufficient to pass a learning test. Studied the number of messages irrelevant to the topic, explicit threading of messages, reading times of relevant messages, and learning outcomes. (LRW)