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Understanding the rules of life is one of the most important scientific endeavours and has revolutionised both biology and biotechnology. Remarkable advances in observation techniques allow us to investigate a broad range of complex and dynamic biological processes in which living systems could exploit quantum behaviour to enhance and regulate biological functions. Recent evidence suggests that these non-trivial quantum mechanical effects may play a crucial role in maintaining the non-equilibrium state of biomolecular systems. Quantum biology is the study of such quantum aspects of living systems. In this review, we summarise the latest progress in quantum biology, including the areas of enzyme-catalysed reactions, photosynthesis, spin-dependent reactions, DNA, fluorescent proteins, and ion channels. Many of these results are expected to be fundamental building blocks towards understanding the rules of life.

Funder: Equal Opportunities Foundation Hong Kong, Funder: University of Surrey; Id: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100003513, Funder: DCSA3 scholarship, Funder: Royal Society; Id: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000288, Funder: European Research Council; Id: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000781, Successful manipulation of halide perovskite surfaces is typically achieved via the interactions between modulators and perovskites. Herein, it is demonstrated that a strong‐interaction surface modulator is beneficial to reduce interfacial recombination losses in inverted (p‐i‐n) perovskite solar cells (IPSCs). Two organic ammonium salts are investigated, consisting of 4‐hydroxyphenethylammonium iodide and 2‐thiopheneethylammonium iodide (2‐TEAI). Without thermal annealing, these two modulators can recover the photoluminescence quantum yield of the neat perovskite film in contact with fullerene electron transport layer (ETL). Compared to the hydroxyl‐functionalized phenethylammonium moiety, the thienylammonium facilitates the formation of a quasi‐2D structure onto the perovskite. Density functional theory and quasi‐Fermi level splitting calculations reveal that the 2‐TEAI has a stronger interaction with the perovskite surface, contributing to more suppressed non‐radiative recombination at the perovskite/ETL interface and improved open‐circuit voltage (VOC) of the fabricated IPSCs. As a result, the VOC increases from 1.11 to 1.20 V (based on a perovskite bandgap of 1.63 eV), yielding a power conversion efficiency (PCE) from ≈20% to 21.9% (stabilized PCE of 21.3%, the highest reported PCEs for IPSCs employing poly[N, N′′‐bis(4‐butylphenyl)‐N, N′′‐bis(phenyl)benzidine] as the hole transport layer, alongside the enhanced operational and shelf‐life stability for unencapsulated devices.

Curved X‐ray detectors have the potential to revolutionize diverse sectors due to benefits such as reduced image distortion and vignetting compared to their planar counterparts. While the use of inorganic semiconductors for curved detectors are restricted by their brittle nature, organic–inorganic hybrid semiconductors which incorporated bismuth oxide nanoparticles in an organic bulk heterojunction consisting of poly(3‐hexylthiophene‐2,5‐diyl) (P3HT) and [6,6]‐phenyl C71 butyric acid methyl ester (PC70BM) are considered to be more promising in this regard. However, the influence of the P3HT molecular weight on the mechanical stability of curved, thick X‐ray detectors remains less well understood. Herein, high P3HT molecular weights (>40 kDa) are identified to allow increased intermolecular bonding and chain entanglements, resulting in X‐ray detectors that can be curved to a radius as low as 1.3 mm with low deviation in X‐ray response under 100 repeated bending cycles while maintaining an industry‐standard dark current of, Solution processable organic–inorganic hybrid semiconductors for flexible curved X‐ray detector components have the potential to revolutionize diverse sectors in terms of its cost and performance. This work introduces a strategy for realizing the optimum balance for detector performance at low operating voltages with mechanical flexibility by tuning the organic semiconductor molecular weight for such curved hybrid detectors.

In this work we investigate the influence of thermal treatment of reduced graphite oxide (RGO) on its functional composition and electrochemical performance. It is found that carboxyl, carbonyl, hydroxyl and epoxy groups are present on the RGO surface, witch when subject to thermal annealing in the temperature range 230-250°C can be controllably modified. In the process of thermal annealing, we show the formation of quinoid groups due to an increase in the number of defects. Decrease of the number of layers in RGO material and the quantity of oxygen-containing functional groups (OCFG) also occurs. With increase in annealing temperature, sequential removal of OCFG occurs as follows: carboxyl (250°C-600°C), hydroxyl (600°C-800°C), carbonyl and quinoid (700°C-1000°C). Electrochemical measurements over a wide range of pH values of the buffer electrolytes is possible to correlate the peaks in the cyclic voltammogram curves with the redox reactions of oxygen-containing functional groups as a function of applied potential. Peaks correlated with specific redox reactions which are identified as two-electron. The dependence of the specific capacities of materials on the electrolyte type has been studied. Highest capacitance was detected in 1M NaOH at a scan rate 2 mVs−1 and is equal to 210 Fg−1.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be used in many different applications. Field emission (FE) measurements were used together with Raman spectroscopy to show a correlation between the microstructure and field emission parameters. However, field emission characterization does not suffer from fluorescence noise present in Raman spectroscopy. In this study, Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize vertically aligned CNT forest samples based on their D/G band intensity ratio (ID/IG), and FE properties such as the threshold electric field, enhancement coefficient, and anode to CNT tip separation (ATS) at the outset of emission have been obtained. A relationship between ATS at first emission and the enhancement factor, and, subsequently, a relationship between ATS and the ID/IG are shown. Based on the findings, it is shown that a higher enhancement factor (�3070) results when a lower ID/IG is present (0.45), with initial emissions at larger distances (�47 lm). For the samples studied, the morphology of the CNT tips did not play an important role; therefore, the field enhancement factor (b) could be directly related to the carbon nanotube structural properties such as breaks in the lattice or amorphous carbon content. Thus, this work presents FE as a complementary tool to evaluate the quality of CNT samples, with the advantages of alarger probe size and an averaging over the whole nanotube length. Correspondingly, one can find the best field emitter CNT according to its ID/IG.

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as an exciting class of porous materials that can be structurally designed by choosing particular components according to desired applications. Despite the wide interest in and many potential applications of MOFs, such as in gas storage, catalysis, sensing and drug delivery, electrical semiconductivity and its control is still rare. The use and fabrication of electronic devices with MOF-based components has not been widely explored, despite significant progress of these components made in recent years. Here we report the synthesis and properties of a new highly crystalline, electrochemically active, cobalt and naphthalene diimide-based MOF that is an efficient electrical semiconductor and has a broad absorption spectrum, from 300 to 2500 nm. Its semiconductivity was determined by direct voltage bias using a four-point device, and it features a wavelength dependant photoconductive–photoresistive dual behaviour, with a very high responsivity of 2.5 × 105 A W−1., Photoactive and semiconducting metal-organic frameworks are desirable for electrical and photoelectrical devices, but remain rare. Here Demets and co-workers design a naphthalene diimide and cobalt based MOF with anisotropic electrical semiconductivity and a high responsivity of 2.5 × 105 A W−1.

Some of the key challenges in the applications of graphene and carbon nanotubes are associated with their poor attachment to the substrate and poisoning of the catalyst by environmental contamination prior to the growth phase. Here we report a ‘protected catalyst’ technique which not only overcomes these challenges but also provides a new material production route compatible with many applications of carbon nanomaterials. The breakthrough technique involves capping the catalyst with a protective layer of a suitable material (examples include TiN, Cr, Ta) which protects the catalyst from environmental contaminants such as oxidation, etchant attack, etc., whilst maintaining carbon supply to the catalyst for the CVD growth of desired nanomaterial. A thin Fe catalyst layer remained protected due to the capping layer in the CF4 based reactive-ion-etching of SiO2. We show that the carbon nanostructures grown using this technique exhibit significantly improved adhesion to the substrate in sonication bath tests. We demonstrate the fabrication of 3D structures and CNT based vias in a buried catalyst arrangement using the protected catalyst technique. The technique also allows better control over various growth parameters such as number of graphene layers, growth rate, morphology, and structural quality.

Metal halide perovskite solar cells are emerging candidates for next‐generation thin‐film photovoltaic devices with the potential for extremely low fabrication cost and high power conversion efficiency. Perovskite solar cells have demonstrated a rapid development in device performance over the last decade, from an initial 3.81% to a most recently certified 24.2%, though the challenges of long‐term stability and lead toxicity still remain. Carbon materials, ranging from zero‐dimensional carbon quantum dots to three‐dimensional carbon black materials, are promising candidates for the enhancement of both efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells, offering unique advantages for incorporation into various device architectures. In this review article, we present a concise overview of important and exciting advancements of perovskite solar cells that incorporate different dimensions of carbon material in their device architectures in an effort to simultaneously improve device performance and long‐term stability. We also discuss the major advantages and potential challenges of each technique that has been developed in the most recent work. Finally, we outline the future opportunities toward more efficient and stable perovskite solar cells utilizing carbon materials.

36th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition; 629-633, Perovskite solar cells (PSC) have attracted considerable attention in recent years due to the high efficiencies achieved, their scalability potential and the introduction of record efficiency tandem devices with a perovskite layer on top of silicon. Although the reported efficiencies and scalability approaches demonstrated show great potential for this technology, stability issues are a significant obstacle for PSC before they can compete with established PV technologies. Although efficient encapsulation offers some protection from environmental factors, encapsulation will never be perfect and through the years some permeation of oxygen and humidity into PV modules is inevitable. There are a number of critical factors for PSC degradation, and tests require accurate conditions and measurements in order to distinguish different degradation mechanisms. In situ metrology for ageing tests of perovskite PV devices has been developed at NPL that involves accurately controlled environments that can simulate realistic encapsulation conditions, while applying electrical measurements and spatial characterisation techniques. Environmental conditions including atmospheric composition, spectrum and intensity of illumination, and temperature can be accurately controlled. At the same time, current-voltage measurements, luminescence imaging, and photocurrent mapping of PSC can be performed during degradation. This allows the collection of a significant amount of data, in order to record the failure processes of samples and reveal the degradation mechanisms.

The predicted 50 billion devices connected to the Internet of Things by 2020 has renewed interest in polysilicon technology for high performance new sensing and control circuits, in addition to traditional display usage. Yet, the polycrystalline nature of the material presents significant challenges when used in transistors with strongly scaled channel lengths due to non-uniformity in device performance. For these new applications to materialize as viable products, uniform electrical characteristics on large areas will be essential. Here, we report on the effect of deliberately engineered potential barrier at the source of polysilicon thin-film transistors, yielding highly-uniform on-current (

By electrospinning poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-blended sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) functionalized carbon nanotube (CNT) solutions, we engineered single- and double-walled nanotubes into highly aligned arrays. CNT alignment was measured using electron microscopy and polarised Raman spectroscopy. Mechanical tensile testing demonstrates that a CNT loading of 3.9wt% increases the ultimate tensile strength and ductility of our composites by over a factor of 3, and the Young's modulus by over a factor of 4, to ∼260MPa. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) reveals how the aligned nanotubes provide a solid structure, preventing polymer chains from slipping, as well as polymer crystallisation structures such as ‘shish-kebabs’ forming, which are responsible for the improved mechanical properties of the composite. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) reveals micellar and hexagonal columnar structures along the axis of the fibers, some of which are associated with the presence of the CNT, where these hexagonal structures are associated with the SDS functionalization on the CNT surfaces. This work demonstrates the benefits of CNT alignment within composites, revealing the effectiveness of the electrospinning technique, which enables significantly improved functionality, increasing the utility of the composites for use in many different technological areas.

The effects of humidity on the electronic properties of quasi-free standing one layer graphene (QFS 1LG) are investigated via simultaneous magneto-transport in the van der Pauw geometry and local work function measurements in a controlled environment. QFS 1LG on 4H-SiC(0001) is obtained by hydrogen intercalation of the interfacial layer. In this system, the carrier concentration experiences a two-fold increase in sensitivity to changes in relative humidity as compared to the as-grown epitaxial graphene. This enhanced sensitivity to water is attributed to the lowering of the hydrophobicity of QFS 1LG, which results from spontaneous polarization of 4H-SiC(0001) strongly influencing the graphene. Moreover, the superior carrier mobility of the QFS 1LG system is retained even at the highest humidity. The work function maps constructed from Kelvin probe force microscopy also revealed higher sensitivity to water for 1LG compared to 2LG in both QFS 1LG and as-grown systems. These results point to a new field of applications for QFS 1LG, i.e., as humidity sensors, and the corresponding need for metrology in calibration of graphene-based sensors and devices., 16 pages, 4 figures

As a technique, electrospinning has been increasingly utilised for polymer nanofibre production, which has a growing list of advanced applications to which they are being applied. However, commercially scaling the process is challenging, especially when the uniformity of the nanofibres across the bulk of the material is important for the required application. At present, most commercially-scalable systems tend to rely on a drum or cylindrical-style electrode, where a multitude of electrospinning jets are formed with no specific controlled distribution or uniformity over its surface. These electrospinning systems also have the drawback of possessing a varying electrostatic field across the length of the electrode, resulting in a range of spinning conditions which result in an inconsistency in the produced nanofibres. Due to the high centrifugal stresses exerted on the polymer during electrospinning, controlling the electrostatic field is crucial for consistent nanofibre production, which forms the basis for applications such as cellular scaffolds and smart materials. In the work reported here, we utilise computational simulation to explore a range of electrode designs to achieve a large area electrospinning system with a balanced electrostatic field across its entire active surface. We demonstrate the output by producing a high-throughput of nanofibres with comparable properties to that of a traditional single spinneret system, but at a processing rate two orders of magnitude faster.

The solution-based assembly of field-effect transistors using nanowire inks, processed at low temperatures, offers an enormous potential for low power applications envisioned for the “Internet of Things,” including power management sensor circuits and electronics for in vivo bioimplants. Such low-temperature assembly, however, yields substantial contact potential barriers, with limited capacity for high current applications. In this study, the Schottky effect in a specific transistor configuration is utilized to achieve much reduced power consumption, with low saturation voltages (≈1 V), with relatively thick 230-nm SiO2 dielectrics. These source-gated transistors (SGTs) employ solution-deposited silicon nanowire arrays. A range of metal electrode work functions are investigated as device contacts and SGT operation is realized only in the structures with high source contact barriers. Such devices show very early drain current pinch-off, abruptly saturating at low drain voltages. The authors show that drain-current modulation is achieved via the gate field acting on the source barrier and lowering it through image force effects. Activation energy measurements reveal gate-induced source barrier lowering of ≈3 meV V−1. Numerical simulations show excellent correlation with the experimental data. These features, coupled with flat current saturation characteristics, are ideal for a range of low power applications, including wearable electronics and autonomous systems.

Indene C60 and C70 bisadducts (IC60BA and IC70BA) have relatively high lowest unoccupied molecular orbital energies. In poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)-based polymer solar cells (PSCs), this produces an increase in open-circuit voltage (VOC) and power conversion efficiency (PCE). However, ICBA synthesis produces a mixture of regio-isomers with different indene spatial orientations (2, 5, and 12 o'clock) that alter the IC70BA molecular packing when mixed with P3HT. In this paper, how the IC70BA regio-isomerism affects the PSC performance is examined by investigating the molecular packing of P3HT:IC70BA layers with different regio-isomeric ratios. For the first time, non-destructive spectroscopic ellipsometry is used to investigate the effect of the fabrication conditions on the P3HT/IC70BA vertical volume fraction distribution and the results are attributed to the spatial arrangement of the regio-isomers. It is demonstrated that this unambiguously affects the PSC performance. As a result, record device efficiencies are repeatedly attained for standard architecture P3HT:IC70BA PSCs with photoactive areas of 0.43 cm2, achieving 5.9 (±0.4)% PCE (n = 15). With control of the IC70BA constituent, device PCEs vary from below 2.2% to peak values above 6.7%, among the highest recorded PCEs for a P3HT combination, highlighting the importance of the molecular phase separation for high-efficiency devices.

A study of graphene on metal nanotextured surfaces for ultra-broadband light trapping, blackbody absorbers, and thermal imaging., The ability to engineer a thin two-dimensional surface for light trapping across an ultra-broad spectral range is central for an increasing number of applications including energy, optoelectronics, and spectroscopy. Although broadband light trapping has been obtained in tall structures of carbon nanotubes with millimeter-tall dimensions, obtaining such broadband light–trapping behavior from nanometer-scale absorbers remains elusive. We report a method for trapping the optical field coincident with few-layer decoupled graphene using field localization within a disordered distribution of subwavelength-sized nanotexturing metal particles. We show that the combination of the broadband light–coupling effect from the disordered nanotexture combined with the natural thinness and remarkably high and wavelength-independent absorption of graphene results in an ultrathin (15 nm thin) yet ultra-broadband blackbody absorber, featuring 99% absorption spanning from the mid-infrared to the ultraviolet. We demonstrate the utility of our approach to produce the blackbody absorber on delicate opto-microelectromechanical infrared emitters, using a low-temperature, noncontact fabrication method, which is also large-area compatible. This development may pave a way to new fabrication methodologies for optical devices requiring light management at the nanoscale.

Eliminating curved refracting lensing components used in conventional projection, imaging and sensing optical assemblies, is critical to enable compactness and miniaturisation of optical devices. A suitable means is replacing refracting lenses with two-dimensional optical media in flat-slab form, to achieve an equivalent optical result. One approach, which has been the focus of intense research, uses a Veselago lens which features a negative-index metamaterial. However, practical implementations rely on resonance techniques, thus broadband operation at optical frequencies imposes significant technical challenges that have been difficult to overcome. Here, we demonstrate a highly-collimated, broadband, wide-diameter beam from a compact source in flat-slab form, based on light collimation using nanomaterials ordered in patterns and embedded into flexible polymers. These provide a highly anisotropic absorption coefficient due to patterns created by vertical carbon nanotube structures grown on glass and the anisotropic electrical conductivity of the nanotubes. We show this nanostructure strongly absorbs unwanted off-axis light rays, whilst transmitting the desired on-axis rays, to achieve the required optical effect over broadband, from visible to short-infrared, thus circumventing some technical limitations of negative-index metamaterials. We further show a low substrate-temperature system for nanotube growth, allowing direct implementation into heat-sensitive large-area devices.

We report a ZnO interfacial layer based on an environmentally friendly aqueous precursor for organic photovoltaics. Inverted PCDTBT devices based on this precursor show power conversion efficiencies of 6.8–7%. Unencapsulated devices stored in air display prolonged lifetimes extending over 200 hours with less than 20% drop in efficiency compared to devices based on the standard architecture.

A methylnadic anhydride-cured diglycidylether of bisphenol A, is prepared and characterised and a mono-epoxy POSS reagent added (0.5–4 wt-%) to produce a series of nanocomposites. Two reaction mechanisms are observed involving esterification at lower temperatures (60–180 °C) and etherification at temperatures above 180 °C. Using the Ozawa and Kissinger methods, the activation energy for the first reaction was found to be 87–90 kJ/mol and 122–124 kJ/mol for the second reaction. Incorporation of POSS into the epoxy-anhydride network increases the Tg and cross-link density, indicating a more rigid network, but the values do not follow a trend based solely on POSS content. The char yield increases with POSS content with very little change in the degradation temperature. Incorporation of POSS (1 wt-%) can reduce the moisture uptake in the cured resin by ∼25% at 75% relative humidity. This is accompanied by a lower impact on glass transition temperature: the Tg is reduced by 10 K at saturation, compared with 31 K for the unmodified epoxy.

International audience; For organic photovoltaics (OPVs) to contribute significantly to energy generation, they need to be scaled to large areas, much like all organic electronics. Therefore, there is a need for the development of a specific model that describes the electrical properties related to the size effects and cell interconnections. We report here on the equivalent circuit models for a high-performance series-connected OPV module based on a polymer:fullerene bulkheterojunction formulation. We examine the validity of the effective single cell methodology in the conventional framework and suggest a modified model that includes the net series resistance and additional parasitic leakage conductions. The photocurrent is found to follow the diffusion-limited voltage dependence, for which an empirical treatment enables an improved reproduction of the measurement near the short-circuit point.

We investigate the local surface potential and Raman characteristics of as-grown and ex-situ hydrogen intercalated quasi-free standing graphene on 4H-SiC(0001) grown by chemical vapor deposition. Upon intercalation, transport measurements reveal a change in the carrier type from n- to p-type, accompanied by a more than three-fold increase in carrier mobility, up to μh ≈ 4540 cm2 V−1 s−1. On a local scale, Kelvin probe force microscopy provides a complete and detailed map of the surface potential distribution of graphene domains of different thicknesses. Rearrangement of graphene layers upon intercalation to (n + 1)LG, where n is the number of graphene layers (LG) before intercalation, is demonstrated. This is accompanied by a significant increase in the work function of the graphene after the H2-intercalation, which confirms the change of majority carriers from electrons to holes. Raman spectroscopy and mapping corroborate surface potential studies.

Through their high gain and low saturation voltage, source-gated transistors (SGTs) have applications in both analog and digital thin-film circuits. In this paper, we show how we can design SGT-based logic gates, which are practically unaffected by temperature variations. We discuss design characteristics, which ensure reliable operation in spite of SGT temperature dependence of drain current, and their implications for manufacturability and large signal operation.

A method to simultaneously synthesize carbon-encapsulated magnetic iron nanoparticles (Fe-NPs) and attach these particles to multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) is presented. Thermal decomposition of cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer [(C5H5)(2)Fe-2(CO)(4)], over a range of temperatures from 250 degrees C to 1200 degrees C, results in the formation of Fe-NPs attached to MWCNT. At the same time, a protective carbon shell is produced and surrounds the Fe-NPs, covalently attaching the particles to the MWCNT and leading to resistance to acid dissolution. The carbon coating varies in degree of graphitisation, with higher synthesis temperatures leading to a higher degree of graphitisation. The growth model of the nanoparticles and subsequent mechanism of MWCNT attachment is discussed. Adsorption potential of the hybrid material towards organic dyes (Rhodamine B) has been displayed, an indication of potential uses as a material for water treatment. The material has also been electrospun into aligned nanocomposite fibres to produce a soft magnetic composite (SMC) with future applications in sensors and fast switching solenoids.

Nano-composite thin films of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrene-sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) with different loading concentrations of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) were deposited on glass substrates using inkjet printing and spin coating techniques. The surface energy of the substrate was modified using an oxygen plasma to achieve different degrees of wetting by the composite solution. We show that the electrical properties strongly depend on the wetting of the substrate and by controlling the wettability, the conductivity of the nano-composite samples can be improved. Based on polymer conductivity, the electrical conductivity of the composite film can be improved or degraded by orders of magnitude with the incorporation of the same concentration of MWCNT. Moreover, electrical measurements show strong correlation between the conductivity of the carbon nanotube network and the resulting nano-composite films. The dependence of electrical properties on the wettability and the conductivity of the composite components could explain the diversity in the electrical behaviour reported in the literature for PEDOT:PSS/MWCNT nano-composite thin films.

Despite the "darker than black" association attributed to carbon nanotube forests, here is shown that it is also possible to grow these structures, over heat-sensitive substrates, featuring highly transmissive characteristics from the UV to infrared wavelengths, for forest heights as high as 20 μm. The optical transmission is interpreted in terms of light propagation along channels that are self-generated by localized bundling of tubes, acting as waveguides. A good correlation is shown between the distribution of diameter sizes of these sub-wavelength voids and the transmission spectrum of the forests. For the shorter visible and near-UV wavelengths, this model shows that light propagates by channeling along individual vertical voids in the forests, which elucidates the origin for the widely-reported near-zero reflectance values observed in forests. For the longer infrared wavelengths, the mode spreads over many nanotubes and voids, and propagates along a "homogeneous effective medium". The strong absorption of the forest at the shorter wavelengths is correlated in terms of the stronger attenuation inside a waveguide cavity, according to the λ attenuation dependency of standard waveguide theory. The realization of this material can lead to novel avenues in new optoelectronic device design, where the carbon nanotube forests can be used as highly conducting "scaffolds" for optically active materials, whilst also allowing light to penetrate to significant depths into the structure, in excess of 20 μm, enabling optical functionality. Copyright © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

We report new solution processable electron transport layers for organic photovoltaic devices based on composites of metal oxides and reduced graphene oxides. Low bandgap polymer cells fabricated using these nanohybrid transport layers display power conversion efficiencies in the range of 7.4-7.5% which is observed to be an improvement over conventional metal oxide or thermally evaporated electron transport layers. This efficiency enhancement is driven mainly by improvements in the short circuit current (from ∼14.8 to ∼15.0 mA cm) as well as the fill factor (∼65% to ∼68%) upon the inclusion of reduced graphene oxide with the metal oxides. This is attributed to the reduced graphene oxide providing charge transfer pathways between the metal oxide nanoparticles. In addition, the metal oxide/reduced graphene oxide nanohybrids also lead to more balanced electron and hole mobilities which assist in the improvement of the fill factor of the device. The versatile nature of these nanohybrids is increased due to the wrapping of the graphene layers around the metal oxide nanoparticles, which leads to very smooth films with surface roughness of ∼3 nm. The improvement observed in this study upon the incorporation of RGO as well as the solution processable nature of the interfacial layers brings the organic photovoltaic technology a step closer towards realising an all solution processed solar cell. © 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.

The demand for high-density memory in tandem with limitations imposed by the minimum feature size of current storage devices has created a need for new materials that can store information in smaller volumes than currently possible. Successfully employed in commercial optical data storage products, phase-change materials, that can reversibly and rapidly change from an amorphous phase to a crystalline phase when subject to heating or cooling have been identified for the development of the next generation electronic memories. There are limitations to the miniaturization of these devices due to current synthesis and theoretical considerations that place a lower limit of 2 nm on the minimum bit size, below which the material does not transform in the structural phase. We show here that by using carbon nanotubes of less than 2 nm diameter as templates phase-change nanowires confined to their smallest conceivable scale are obtained. Contrary to previous experimental evidence and theoretical expectations, the nanowires are found to crystallize at this scale and display amorphous-to-crystalline phase changes, fulfilling an important prerequisite of a memory element. We show evidence for the smallest phase-change material, extending thus the size limit to explore phase-change memory devices at extreme scales.