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BACKGROUND: If a new job is located in a different region from the place of residence, individuals or households can choose between moving or commuting. However, so far mobility alternatives and their drivers remain under-researched from a comparative perspective. OBJECTIVE: We investigate the determinants of the mobility choices of individuals who have taken a distant job (50 km or more), considering three options, (1) permanent migration, (2) daily commuting, (3) weekly commuting (i.e., a second residence), thereby focusing on the interplay between migration costs linked to different sources of location-specific capital (property ownership, working partner, school-age children) and transition costs linked to the distance travelled. METHODS: We use longitudinal data from the German Socio-economic Panel (SOEP, 2001-2019) and estimate probit regression models with Heckman correction to account for sample selection. RESULTS: We find that a large distance to the workplace favors the decision to migrate or to commute weekly, while a high endowment with location-specific capital favors daily or weekly commuting. Weekly commuting is particularly chosen when both migration and transition costs are very high. However, parents of school-age children are more inclined to commute daily, suggesting that they are often more willing to accept high transition costs than to be separated from their family during the week. CONTRIBUTION: This study is one of the first to differentiate between daily and weekly commuting in a comparative analysis of mobility determinants. It complements previous findings by relying on a precise measure of spatial distance and examining real mobility behavior instead of self-reported mobility intentions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Second homes and weekend commuting are frequently used strategies for covering large distances between the place of work and residence. The literature posits a positive association between work-related spatial mobility, social mobility, and career achievement. However, so far, surprisingly little attention has been paid explicitly to the relationship between weekend commuting (i.e. work-related residential multilocality) and social and career mobility. Therefore, we examine whether and how starting a weekend commuting episode is associated with wage changes. For the statistical framework, we apply fixed effects panel regressions to data of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). Overall, the results show that weekend commuting is positively associated with wage gains. However, more detailed analysis that controls for selectivity on wage growth and differentiates by sex and geographical region reveals pronounced differences with regard to the size and timing of the effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The recent credit crunch will have implications for private households. Low socioeconomic status is associated to various diseases. While income, education and occupational status is frequently used in definitions of socioeconomic status, over-indebtedness of private households is usually not considered. Over-indebtedness is currently increasing in high-income countries. However, its association with health – particularly with obesity – remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess an association between over-indebtedness and overweight or obesity. Methods A cross-sectional study on over-indebtedness and health including 949 over-indebted subjects from 2006 and 2007 in Rhineland-Palatinate and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (Germany) and the telephonic health survey 2003 of the Robert Koch-Institute including 8318 subjects, who are representative for the German population, were analysed with adjusted logistic regression considering overweight (BMI ≥25.0 kg/m2) and obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) as response variable. Results After adjusting for socio-economic (age, sex, education, income) and health factors (depression, smoking habits) an independent effect of the over-indebt situation on the probability of overweight (aOR 1.97 95%-CI 1.65–2.35) and obesity (aOR 2.56 95%-CI 2.07–3.16) could be identified. Conclusion Over-indebtedness was associated with an increased prevalence of overweight and obesity that was not explained by traditional definitions of socioeconomic status. Over-indebtedness should be additionally considered when assessing health effects of socioeconomic status.

Previous research indicates that employees with long commutes suffer from impaired health. In this paper, we argue that this relation should be conceptualized within a stress–strain framework. Using data from 1928 expatriate employees of the German Foreign Office, we test the mediating role of perceived stress in the relation between daily commuting time and health-related quality of life (HRQOL). We find that long commutes are associated with substantially lower HRQOL and that this relation is well-accounted for by associated increases in stress, particularly among parents. We discuss how a stress perspective can inform future research on commuting impacts and implications for individual, organizational, and policy interventions to mitigate adverse consequences of commuting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contemporary societies, travelling intensively to and for work has become an important part in many people's lives. A life course approach suggests that spatial mobility may, however, conflict with other life domains such as fertility, especially for women. Using longitudinal survey data from France, Germany, Spain, and Switzerland, our study provides novel evidence that the interdependence of fertility and work-related spatial mobility behaviours is largely shaped by national contexts. Based on innovative techniques of sequence analysis, our results indicate that long-term experiences of daily and weekly long-distance commuting and overnight work travel are associated with lower fertility mainly among women in Germany and Switzerland. In France and Spain, the association is weaker or absent. Interestingly, male overnight travellers in Germany and Switzerland show similar tendencies. These men have a comparatively lower fertility than other men, although the cross-national differences are less pronounced than among women. Our study discusses the role of national family policies, social norms, and labour market structures in facilitating or hindering the reconciliation between fertility and work-related spatial mobility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transnational educational mobility (TEM) – stays abroad between and during basic and post-secondary education – has become increasingly popular in advanced societies. In this systematic research review, we synthesize findings of existing empirical studies on the potential career benefits of educational mobility. Our extensive search procedure yielded 65 documents that were reviewed with respect to three vertical career outcomes: career planning skills, transition into employment, and professional status or income. Results reveal a moderate positive effect of educational mobility on income after graduation. While individuals themselves perceive a connection between their transnational mobility practices and subsequent job search success, objective effect assessments disprove assumptions about faster school to work transitions. Individuals also perceive a positive impact of TEM on career planning skills, but studies using more elaborate methods report no impact. The review also buttresses the relevance of individual and contextual factors as moderators of the career impact of educational mobility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The health-related well-being of diplomats has rarely been addressed in empirical studies. This is a shortcoming since this group of expatriates is confronted with specific mobility challenges. This paper has two central objectives. First, we investigate how the self-reported health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of German Foreign Service (GFS) employees compares to respective reference values from the German general population. Second, within the framework of an expanded Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model, we analyze how diplomats’ HRQOL is affected by exposure to international relocation mobility and various personal risk and protective factors. All employees of the GFS were surveyed using online questionnaires ( N = 2433). Our HRQOL measure was derived from the “Quality of Life Questionnaire Core 30” (QLQ-C30). We show that, compared to the general population, diplomats report a worse HRQOL with respect to all subdomains included (physical symptoms as well as role, emotional, and social functioning). Absolute exposure to mobility (time spent in international rotation) did not affect HRQOL, while individually perceived stress shows significant detrimental effects and personal resources (self-efficacy, mobility-specific coping, social support) show significant beneficial effects on diplomats’ HRQOL. Perceived demands of work in diplomacy had significant health-impairment effects, but perceived resources had no additive value in explaining diplomats’ HRQOL once controlling for other factors. Moderator analyses reveal that mobility-specific coping acted as a buffer in the relationship between perceived stress and perceived job demands and HRQOL. Practical implications are drawn as to support plans that respect the individual’s stress perceptions and available resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Findings from cross-sectional studies point to a positive correlation between commuting willingness and commuting behavior. Individuals who currently commute long distances to work express a greater willingness to do so in the future. In terms of policy and planning, planners and policymakers often regard the willingness to commute long distances as an important indicator of a population's potential future commuting behavior. However, given the emphasis on cross-sectional studies in the existing literature, it is unclear whether a high willingness to commute actually has an influence on the decision to engage in commuting (selection hypothesis), or whether participating in long-distance commuting determines willingness to commute (adaptation hypothesis). We use unique longitudinal data from four European countries – Germany, France, Spain, and Switzerland – to examine the relationship between individual level willingness to commute long distances (i.e. at least 60 min one-way) and actual commuting behavior. Results show that there is considerable within-person variance in commuting willingness over time. We find novel evidence that is in line with the adaptation hypothesis, meaning that starting a long-distance commuting episode is associated with an increase in commuting willingness. There is also some evidence for a selection effect, yet this effect appears to be considerably weaker. Therefore, this study provides more support for adaptation theories of commuting suggesting that commuting willingness can be understood as an outcome capturing people's attitudes toward their current commuting arrangements. Future commuting research should incorporate such possibilities into their conceptualizations of the commuting willingness construct and explanatory models for commuting behavior and outcomes. We also address implications for policy and practice. • There is considerable within-person variance in commuting willingness over time. • Starting long-distance commuting is associated with an increase in willingness. • Weaker evidence that willingness influences the decision to engage in commuting. • This study provides more support for adaptation theories of commuting. • Policy should less emphasize or target willingness as a vector for influencing behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we analyze how childbirth-related changes in commuting contribute to the motherhood wage gap, which in turn accounts for a large part of the gender pay gap. Derived from human capital theory and job search theory, we examine various mechanisms that might explain why reduced commuting distances after childbirth come along with wage reductions for mothers. The empirical analyses are based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) 2001–2017, which are analyzed within a fixed effects (FE) panel framework (n = 41,111 observations from 7183 persons). Firstly, the results show that the transition to first parenthood is associated with a 33% decrease in the commuting distance of women, while the transition to fatherhood has no effect. Secondly, mothers who substantially reduce their commuting distance after the transition to parenthood (who amount to 30% of all mothers in our sample) show an increased wage penalty (−18.4%), compared to mothers who do not reduce their commuting distance (−8.7%). Accordingly, 23% of the motherhood wage penalty can be attributed to wage losses related to the reduction in commuting distance. Thirdly, wage penalties for mothers who change to a job closer to their place of residence can be partly explained by the loss of firm-specific human capital. In addition, the wage penalty for commuting is a consequence of women taking jobs that are less suited to their skills profile and moving to smaller companies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupational status benefits of student mobility remain uncertain, despite increasing interest in the implications of international student mobility for the reproduction of societal inequality. Since mobile young people are a selective group in terms of socio-economic and achievement-oriented factors, we apply propensity score techniques to test whether German higher education graduates who did or did not study abroad differ in occupational status (based on the Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status) three years after graduation. Analyses are based on multi-cohort representative data of the German population (Working and Learning in a Changing World). Results confirm a positively biased effect of mobility on early career occupational status driven by compositional differences. Subgroup analyses show that even when accounting for this bias, occupational status returns to mobility are positive for those graduating in occupationally unspecific fields of study. There are no returns for those graduating in occupationally specific fields of study. Findings also suggest that the effect of studying abroad is not homogeneous across the study population. Individuals less likely to study abroad are at the same time more likely to reap the occupational benefits from this experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work-related internal migration can be associated with various labor market benefits such as improved career opportunities. However, benefits can be offset by specific burdens (relocation stress) which, in turn, can lead to adverse health outcomes. These burdens include organizing the move, difficulties in maintaining social relationships, homesickness or feelings of displacement. However, there is a particular lack of longitudinal studies which deploy advanced methods to examine how internal migration affects shifts in health-related quality of life (HRQOL) over time. Also, there has been little research into whether the consequences of relocations differ by socio-economic position. In order to address these gaps, we apply fixed effects (FE) panel regression models to representative data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). We use the SF-12 Health Survey items to capture the subjective assessment of overall mental and physical well-being. Overall, we find an increase in physical HRQOL after the relocation event. Mental HRQOL tends to decrease before the event and then increases afterwards, on average, but there seems to be very little lasting change. Subgroup analyses, however, reveal differential trajectories by educational level, i.e. a clear educational health gradient around migration. While physical and mental HRQOL increases among movers with high educational attainment, individuals with lower levels of education show decreases in both health dimensions upon moving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]