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This study optimized the organic matter solubilization of faecal sludge (FS). FS was treated in a microwave oven at varying microwave power and treatment times. Changes in total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD), and soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) were measured. A response surface methodology (RSM) optimized organic matter solubilization during microwave treatment. A central composite design was employed, and the observed responses were used to fit a second-order response surface model. Microwave treatment at 14,000 kJ/kg. TS reduced FS volume by 58%. The VS/TS ratios remained similar before and after microwave treatment. The solubilization of organic matter (measured by the sCOD/TCOD ratio) increased after microwave treatment, showing an initial linear increase with specific energy followed by a decrease. The highest solubilization was 38%, achieved at a microwave power level of 630 W for 3 min. Organic matter solubilization was more sensitive to contact time than microwave power. RSM determined the optimized conditions to be 617.7 W and 2.4 min, within the experimental design boundaries. These findings align with similar observations from other studies using wastewater sludge. The results suggest that microwave treatment can achieve multiple FS treatment objectives. Optimal operating conditions should be identified if the aim is to solubilize organic matter in FS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the implementation of Tiger Worm Toilets (TWTs) as a sustainable alternative to pit latrines in areas with challenging environmental conditions. The study was carried out in Koinadugu, Sierra Leone, where TWTs were installed in 200 households, providing safe sanitation for approximately 1,200 individuals within a 17-month period. The study reveals that TWTs offer several benefits over traditional pit latrines, including higher cost efficiency. Despite some setbacks, TWTs have been well-received by the local communities, resulting in a significant reduction in open defaecation in areas where latrines are not viable. The study presents areas of further research and concludes with recommendations for future TWT designs based on the lessons learned. HIGHLIGHTS Community engagement facilitated the adoption of TWTs and ensured ongoing cooperation and financial viability.; A sustainable design is presented to prevent fly nuisance and rainwater infiltration in TWT biodigesters.;

Shacks in urban informal settlements will be the most common form of housing in Namibia by 2025. Informal settlements are usually not connected to municipal sewage systems for multiple reasons, including lack of land tenure and lack of official capacity to invest in infrastructure in unplanned spaces. On-site decentralised sanitation is therefore the norm for shack dwellings in Namibia, but any official opposition to this system results in complete absence of sanitation and inadvertently promotes open defecation. This grey zone of urban informality and the gap in sanitation delivery is the focus of this study, which evaluates interactions between local communities, non-government organisations (Clay House Project and Development Workshop Namibia) and an international development agency (GIZ) as they navigate the physical, economic and political landscape of implementing bottom-up sanitation solutions for informal settlements in Namibia. In critical analysis of the three different sanitation delivery models of these organisations, we consider their historical development, underlying philosophies and technical solutions. We also examine how products from different sanitation systems are managed and whether urine source separation could improve their management. Overall, the results provide insights into bridging gaps in sanitation delivery in informal settlements, which are home to more than a billion people worldwide.

This work presents groundwater quality assessment of Aba Urban area and its sources of Contaminants within Aba Urban Area. Aba area was divided into nine parts using a 3x3 grid. Water samples were taken from each of these 9 parts of Aba. Five water samples were taken from household boreholes while four samples were taken from boreholes drilled and cased at the remaining four parts in the course of carrying out this research. Site and laboratory tests were conducted to determine the values water parameters in the samples. The parameters analysed in the laboratory include the Phosphate, ammonium, Lead, cadmium, Manganese, Copper, Mercury, Chromium, and magnesium, Electric conductivity (EC), Dissolved oxygen (DO), Total dissolved solid (TDS), Acidity, Turbidity, Alkalinity, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and E-Coli. It was discovered that more than 75% of the water samples are contaminated by EColi. Umuagu sample has Manganese value of 0.775mg/l. This more than the limiting value of 0.4mg/l. The values 252, 524 and 472 mg/l of Magnesium in samples from Estate, Abia Polytechnic and Osisio Ngwa respectively are more than the limiting value of 150mg/l. The DO (mg/l) values of 6,4 and 9 from Ariaria Junction and Abia Polytechnic are outside the range limiting of 6.5mg/l - 8.0 mg/l. The values of TDS, ORP and BOD recorded in all the samples are below the limiting values of 600 mg/l, 357 mV and 1mg/l respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pit latrines are the most common form of improved sanitation in many rapidly developing countries. However, they cause the highest amount of groundwater pollution among on-site sanitation (OSS) facilities. Many households in developing countries use groundwater as their main or sub-source, and pit latrines are not a sustainable solution. Thus, the conversion from pit latrines to septic tanks is required.We created two types of media, still images and a video, to illustrate the differences in functions and hygiene risks between pit latrines and septic tanks. Moreover, a survey was conducted in Sri Lanka to determine the media choice that would increase the people's preference for septic tanks as their next OSS, even weeks after the information is presented. The choice of the next OSS participants selected before they were presented with the images was the same as that currently in use, reflecting the belief that the problem of pit latrines was not currently apparent and need not be changed. However, a video presentation of the information made it possible for a larger group of people to choose the usage of septic tanks in the future, especially in suburban areas where the problems were likely to occur.

On-site sanitation systems (OSS), such as pit latrines, are an important source of methane (CH4), with emissions increasing when they are wet, and this occurs when anaerobic conditions dominate. This paper presents the development of a model, which uses seasonal changes in groundwater to account for the fluctuating inundation of pit latrines, and, therefore, the associated CH4 emissions from varying degrees of anerobic conditions are examined. Given that observed timeseries of groundwater table depth at high enough spatial and temporal resolutions are often difficult to obtain in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation is used to generate values for a whole region, which is then used, alongside average pit latrine depth, to determine areas of pit latrine inundation. Outcomes are further informed with open-source contextual data, covering population, urban/rural split, and sanitation facility data, before using methodologies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to generate CH4 emissions data. As a case study, we use data from Senegal to illustrate how this model works. Results show total CH4 emissions for the month of January to be ~1.69 kt CH4. We have also discussed the potential use of satellite remote sensing data in regions where access to historical groundwater data is limited. Understanding when the pit conditions are most likely to change could lead to incentives for better management strategies, as well as a reduction in CH4 production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS) are identified as significant contributors of greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily due to biological processes occurring within the containment systems. In unsealed or unlined containment systems like pit latrines, the emissions are influenced by moisture. This work quantified the GHG emission from unlined or unsealed containments prevalent in Nepal and compared it with sealed containment-like septic tanks, where the chances of groundwater (GW) inundation are low. The modeled GW data extracted from the secondary sources were validated with available national data. The emissions were quantified using the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) model for different ecological and provincial divisions of Nepal. Spatial representation for the results was done using the Geographical Information System (GIS) tool. The total methane (CH 4) emission occurring from the various NSSS was determined to be 2618 Gg CO 2 e per year which is almost twice the emission from the waste sector in 2011, as reported by the recent national communication submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). Variation of the CH 4 emission was found to be prominent in lowlands (Terai region) with total national emissions of 1329.37 Gg CO 2 e per year. The lowland has a shallow GW table that can easily inundate the unlined containments like pit latrines thus contributing to more anaerobic conditions which may lead to higher CH 4 emissions compared to containments in mid and highlands. This study concludes that the GHG emissions occurring from NSSS are substantial and addressing these emissions can help fulfil the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in the waste sector. [Display omitted] • CH 4 emission was calculated from the containments in NSSS impacted by groundwater. • CH 4 emission was higher where groundwater inundation in containments was prominent. • CH 4 emissions from NSSS are substantial but underestimated. • Modeling groundwater inundations in containments provides better emission estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On-site sanitation systems such as pit latrines are extensively used around the world, while there is a growing number of evidence documenting the impact of pit latrines on groundwater quality that may affect human health. Hence, this paper summarizes the various safe-sanitation technologies by broadly categorizing them into fecal pathogen disinfection methods (anaerobic digestion, chemical disinfection, biological additives, solar pasteurization and vermicomposting) and capturing methods (pit lining and permeable reactive barriers, the latter of which simultaneously capture and sanitize fecal sludge in pit latrines). While some of the reviewed technologies have been widely practiced for mitigating microbial contamination of the groundwater, others are still in the early stage of commercialization and field validation. Though there are challenges to the selection and adoption of the most appropriate technology, this paper discusses the readiness of each technology as a stand-alone fecal sludge management solution. HIGHLIGHTS Pit latrines impact groundwater quality that may affect human health.; Low-cost treatment techniques are discussed to capture and treat pathogens in pit latrines.; Pit liners such as peat, clay, hydrophobic membranes and permeable reactive barriers help capture pathogens.; When compared with other methods, the chemical disinfection method with chlorine, lime, Ikati and Soda ranked best with the highest score.;

In many developing countries, poorly constructed pit latrines are the primary source of groundwater contamination. Approaches are needed to identify site-specific separation distances between domestic wells and pit latrines. In this study, tracer transport simulations are combined with water quality monitoring data to identify separation distances in peri-urban Dar es Salaam. Bivariate correlation and linear regression models were used to find the relationships between (1) simulated tracer and distances from the wells to the nearest pit latrines (2) simulated tracer and observed contaminants (nitrate, E. coli, and total dissolved solids). The results showed a strong correlation between tracer with nitrate and E. coli, with Pearson coefficient (r) values of 0.80 and 0.79, but a weak correlation with total dissolved solids (TDS) (r = 0.23). A strong correlation between tracer and distance for shallow and deep wells (r = −0.96, −0.76) was found. Based on the soil type and aquifer properties in the area, wells must be placed at least 34 m from a pit latrine to minimize contamination. With recent advances in sensor technologies and the availability of low-cost sensors, linking simulated tracer with observed contaminant levels may provide an alternative first approach to quickly assess human health risks associated with groundwater contamination. HIGHLIGHTS A method to determine site-specific separation distance between wells and pit latrines was developed.; Tracer transport simulations and statistical analyses were used to find relationships between tracer, distance and contaminants.; A strong correlation was found between simulated tracer, distance to the nearest pit latrine and contaminants.; In this area, wells must be placed >34 m from pit latrines to minimize contamination.;

Estimates of accumulated quantities and qualities (Q&Q) of faecal sludge are essential for developing city-wide management plans. However, standardized approaches are lacking, and examples in scientific literature make use of diverse methodologies and parameters, making their comparability and transferability difficult. This study field-tested an approach for estimating Q&Q in Sircilla, India, and compared three methods for measuring accumulated sludge: (1) faecal sludge accumulation rate from in situ measurement with a core sampler; (2) faecal sludge accumulation rate with volume emptied by desludging truck; and (3) sludge blanket accumulation rate in situ with a core sampler. Measurements were taken at households and commercial establishments, samples were analysed for characteristics, and demographic, environmental, and technical data were collected with a questionnaire. The median total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentrations for all containments were 26.8, 17.8, and 32.0 g/L, respectively. The median faecal sludge accumulation rate estimated with the core sampler and truck were 53 and 96 L/cap·year, respectively. The median sludge blanket accumulation rate was 17 L/cap·year. Continued data collection in this fashion will lead to a better understanding of what is accumulating in onsite containments at regional levels. HIGHLIGHTS Comparison of methodologies to estimate the total faecal sludge and sludge blanket accumulation rate.; The selection of Q&Q measurement methods should be based on defined objectives and available resources.; Q&Q studies conducted in this fashion will lead to more locally relevant accumulation rates than standard values.;

On-site sanitation systems (OSS), such as pit latrines, are an important source of methane (CH4), with emissions increasing when they are wet, and this occurs when anaerobic conditions dominate. This paper presents the development of a model, which uses seasonal changes in groundwater to account for the fluctuating inundation of pit latrines, and, therefore, the associated CH4 emissions from varying degrees of anerobic conditions are examined. Given that observed timeseries of groundwater table depth at high enough spatial and temporal resolutions are often difficult to obtain in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation is used to generate values for a whole region, which is then used, alongside average pit latrine depth, to determine areas of pit latrine inundation. Outcomes are further informed with open-source contextual data, covering population, urban/rural split, and sanitation facility data, before using methodologies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to generate CH4 emissions data. As a case study, we use data from Senegal to illustrate how this model works. Results show total CH4 emissions for the month of January to be ~1.69 kt CH4. We have also discussed the potential use of satellite remote sensing data in regions where access to historical groundwater data is limited. Understanding when the pit conditions are most likely to change could lead to incentives for better management strategies, as well as a reduction in CH4 production.

In the face of emerging and re-emerging diseases, novel and innovative approaches to population scale surveillance are necessary for the early detection and quantification of pathogens. The last decade has seen the rapid development of wastewater and environmental surveillance (WES) to address public health challenges, which has led to establishment of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approaches being deployed to monitor a range of health hazards. WBE exploits the fact that excretions and secretions from urine, and from the gut are discharged in wastewater, particularly sewage, such that sampling sewage systems provides an early warning system for disease outbreaks by providing an early indication of pathogen circulation. While WBE has been mainly used in locations with networked wastewater systems, here we consider its value for less connected populations typical of lower-income settings, and in assess the opportunity afforded by pit latrines to sample communities and localities. We propose that where populations struggle to access health and diagnostic facilities, and despite several additional challenges, sampling unconnected wastewater systems remains an important means to monitor the health of large populations in a relatively cost-effective manner. [Display omitted] • Many populations are unconnected to centralised sewage systems in Lower Middle-Income countries. • Pit latrines are a common form of sewage disposal. • Communities can be successfully surveyed using a tailored wastewater-based epidemiology approach. • Environmental sampling in Lower Middle-Income countries requires robust sampling approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2017, 55% of the global population were without safely managed sanitation services. On-site sanitation solutions, such as pit latrines, provide the majority of sanitation coverage across developing countries. Appropriate technologies are required in order to safely empty these latrines without damage to people or the environment. The design of appropriate emptying technologies can be hampered by a lack of knowledge of the mechanical properties of the waste, such as its strength. This paper will develop a calibration for a dynamic cone penetrometer to give accurate measurements of faecal sludge strength against a standard scale, rendering existing data comparable. It will be shown that the maximum shear strengths of faecal sludge found in practice are substantially greater than those previously reported; some pit latrines contain faecal sludge with strength values of 5-20 kPa at the surface, and exceeding 80 kPa at depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Slums are faced with several challenges including lack of sanitation facilities. This lack is further compounded by the difficulty in determining an appropriate sanitation technology due to the challenging living conditions. An appropriate technology should, among others, consider the conditions of each settlement as well as views of the slum residents. Through interviews and participatory discussions, residents of the slums in Kisumu city identified sanitation technologies they preferred, and the reasons for or against these technologies. These responses were pointers to characteristics of an appropriate technology for the slums. Pit latrines, ecological sanitation and flush toilets were identified, but residents selected pit latrines as appropriate for their settlements. The results mean that technically, an ideal technology should be easy to construct and use, be socioculturally acceptable, environmentally friendly and economically affordable. This article calls for cooperation among stakeholders, including landlords and tenants in decision-making for sanitation in slums.

In densely populated urban areas of many low-income countries, water scarcity, poor water quality, and inadequate wastewater management present complex challenges to ensuring health and wellbeing. This study was conducted in an impoverished peri-urban community in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania that experiences water scarcity and relies on domestic wells for drinking water. The objective of this study was to identify the sources of domestic well water contamination and assess the relationship and association of water contamination with three variables 1) the proximity of the well to a sanitation system, 2) well age, and 3) well depth. Out of the 71 wells tested, samples from >80% of wells contained Escherichia coli (E. coli) and 58% had nitrate levels above WHO guidelines. The average concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) was 882 mg/L, which exceeded the WHO guideline of 600 mg/L. Bivariate correlation analysis showed a strong correlation between water contamination and proximity of the well to a sanitation system along with well depth. Univariate regression analysis confirmed the association of contaminants with distance of a well from a sanitation system and well depth (p < 0.05) but age of the well did not show any significant influence on water quality. Our findings indicate significant contamination of wells from nearby septic tanks and pit latrines. New regulatory mandates for the distance of domestic wells from sanitation systems are essential to prevent groundwater contamination and to protect human health. Unlabelled Image • Impact of sanitation on groundwater quality in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania was studied. • Effect of well distance to pit latrine, well age, depth on extent of contamination. • The association of contaminants with well distance and depth was confirmed. • The age of the wells did not show any significant influence on water quality. • Nitrate & E. coli levels indicate possible contamination from nearby latrines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Solomon Islands, like other small island developing states in the Pacific, face significant challenges from a changing climate, and from increasing extreme weather events, while also lagging behind the rest of the world in terms of drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) services. In order to support planning for the implementation of national WaSH strategies and policies, this study contextualizes representative urban and rural baselines for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 ("by 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation"). We highlight specific threats to the current sanitation services under extreme weather events such as flooding and drought, both of which are commonly observed in the country, and provide suggestions for structural improvements to sanitation facilities to increase resiliency. As the first detailed nationally representative cross-sectional sanitation study in urban and rural areas in the Solomon Islands, the results of this paper inform national WaSH policy, strategic planning and programming by the Solomon Islands Government and stakeholders. The resilience of different types of sanitation infrastructure in urban and rural households in the Solomon Islands differs under scenarios of increased rainfall/flooding, and decreased rainfall/drought. Unlabelled Image • First representative water, sanitation and hygiene study in the Solomon Islands. • Inadequate sanitation and open defecation are more widespread in rural than in urban areas. • Our baseline data shows that the sanitation situation is worse than presented in official country-wide estimates (JMP). • Assessment of vulnerability, adaptability and resilience of sanitation infrastructure during flooding and drought. • Relevance for national policies, planning and programming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In vitro methods were used to assess the full potential for decomposition (measured as biogas formation) from pit latrine samples taken from the top layer of 15 Tanzanian latrines. We found considerable variability in the decomposition rate and extent. This was compared with decomposition in the same latrines, measured by comparing top layer composition with fresh stools and deeper (older) layers, to assess whether this potential was realised in situ. Results showed a close match between the extent of organic material breakdown in situ and in vitro, indicating that anaerobic digestion is the dominant pathway in latrines. The average potential decrease in chemical oxygen demand (COD) (determined as methane production in vitro within 60 days) and actual measured decrease in situ are 68.9%± 11.3 and 69.7%±19.4, respectively. However in the in vitro tests, where samples were diluted in water, full decomposition was achieved in 2 months, whereas in situ it can take years; this suggests that water addition may offer a simple route to improving latrine performance. The results also allowed us to estimate, for the first time to our knowledge using experimental data, the contribution that latrines make to greenhouse gas emissions globally. This amounts to ~2% of annual US emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Butyric acid is one of the volatile organic compounds that significantly contribute to malodour emission from pit latrines. The purpose of this work is to isolate and identify bacterial strains that have the capability to degrade butyric acid, determine their butyric acid degradation efficiencies and estimate their growth pattern parameters of microbiological relevance. Pure cultures of bacterial strains capable of degrading butyric acid were isolated from pit latrine faecal sludge using an enrichment technique and were identified based on 16S rRNA analysis. The bacterial strains were cultured in mineral salt medium (MSM) supplemented with 1000 mg L−1 butyric acid, as a sole carbon and energy source, at 30 ± 1 °C, pH 7 and 110 rpm under aerobic growth conditions. The modified Gompertz model was used to estimate growth pattern parameters of microbiological relevance. Bacterial strains were phylogenetically identified as Alcaligenes sp. strain SY1, Achromobacter animicus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Achromobacter xylosoxidans, Bacillus cereus, Lysinibacillus fusiformis, Bacillus methylotrophicus and Bacillus subtilis. The bacterial strains in pure cultures degraded butyric acid of 1000 mg L−1 within 20-24 h. The growth kinetics of the bacterial strains in pure culture utilising butyric acid were well described by the modified Gompertz model. This work highlights the potential for use of these bacterial strains in microbial degradation of butyric acid for deodorisation of pit latrine faecal sludge. This work also contributes significantly to our understanding of bioremediation of faecal sludge odours and informs the development of appropriate odour control technologies that may improve odour emissions from pit latrines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limited understanding of disease in low resource communities continues to hamper improvements in health. We evaluated household pit latrine sampling as a non-invasive approach to investigate important fecal pathogens such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium spp. in impoverished communities where health-seeking behavior limits the sensitivity of health facility-based surveillance. Fecal samples were collected from pit latrines in randomly selected households and from patients presenting to the only hospital in the region during the same time periods. Samples were tested with a commercially available ELISA. Giardia household prevalence was 28.7% in 2016 and 48.4% in 2017, while individual samples from hospital submission had a Giardia prevalence of 2.4% in 2016 and 8.0% in 2017. Cryptosporidium was only found in one household. Results suggest that pit latrine surveillance for fecal-borne infections provide course estimates of community infection levels that are unbiased by health seeking behaviors and allow surveillance of vulnerable sectors of a population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progress toward Sustainable Development Goals for global access to safe sanitation is lagging significantly. In this Feature, we propose that misleading terminology leads to errors of categorization and hinders progress toward sanitation service provision in urban areas. Binary classifications such as "offsite/onsite" and "sewered/nonsewered" do not capture the need for "transport to treatment" or the complexity of urban sanitation and should be discarded. "Fecal sludge management" is used only in the development context of low- or middle-income countries, implying separate solutions for "poor" or "southern" contexts, which is unhelpful. Terminology alone does not solve problems, but rather than using outdated or "special" terminology, we argue that a robust terminology that is globally relevant across low-, middle-, and upper-income contexts is required to overcome increasingly unhelpful assumptions and stereotypes. The use of accurate, technically robust vocabulary and definitions can improve decisions about management and selection of treatment, promote a circular economy, provide a basis for evidence-based science and technology research, and lead to critical shifts and transformations to set policy goals around truly safely managed sanitation. In this Feature, the three current modes of sanitation are defined, examples of misconceptions based on existing terminology are presented, and a new terminology for collection and conveyance is proposed: (I) fully road transported, (II) source-separated mixed transport, (III) mixed transport, and (IV) fully pipe transported.

Pit latrines are the most common form of improved sanitation in many rapidly developing countries. However, they cause the highest amount of groundwater pollution among on-site sanitation (OSS) facilities. Many households in developing countries use groundwater as their main or sub-source, and pit latrines are not a sustainable solution. Thus, the conversion from pit latrines to septic tanks is required. We created two types of media, still images and a video, to illustrate the differences in functions and hygiene risks between pit latrines and septic tanks. Moreover, a survey was conducted in Sri Lanka to determine the media choice that would increase the people's preference for septic tanks as their next OSS, even weeks after the information is presented. The choice of the next OSS participants selected before they were presented with the images was the same as that currently in use, reflecting the belief that the problem of pit latrines was not currently apparent and need not be changed. However, a video presentation of the information made it possible for a larger group of people to choose the usage of septic tanks in the future, especially in suburban areas where the problems were likely to occur., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Parallel global rise in pit-latrine sanitation and groundwater-supply provision is of concern due to the frequent spatial proximity of these activities. Study of such an area in Malawi has allowed understanding of risks posed to groundwater from the recent implementation of a typical developing-country pit-latrine sanitation policy to be gained. This has assisted the development of a risk-assessment framework approach pragmatic to regulatory-practitioner management of this issue. The framework involves water-supply and pit-latrine mapping, monitoring of key groundwater contamination indicators and surveys of possible environmental site-condition factors and culminates in an integrated statistical evaluation of these datasets to identify the significant factors controlling risks posed. Our approach usefully establishes groundwater-quality baseline conditions of a potentially emergent issue for the study area. Such baselines are foundational to future trend discernment and contaminant natural attenuation verification critical to policies globally. Attribution of borehole contamination to pit-latrine loading should involve, as illustrated, the use of the range of contamination (chemical, microbiological) tracers available recognising none are ideal and several radial and capture-zone metrics that together may provide a weight of evidence. Elevated, albeit low-concentration, nitrate correlated with some radial metrics and was tentatively suggestive of emerging latrine influences. Longer term monitoring is, however, necessary to verify that the commonly observed latrine-borehole separation distances (29–58 m), alongside statutory guidelines, do not constitute significant risk. Borehole contamination was limited and correlation with various environmental-site condition factors also limited. This was potentially ascribed to effectiveness of attenuation to date, monitoring of an emergent problem yet to manifest, or else contamination from other sources. High borehole usage and protective wall absence correlated with observed microbiological contamination incidence, but could relate to increased human/animal activity close to these poorly protected boreholes. Additional to factors assessed, a groundwater-vulnerability factor is recommended that critically relies upon improved proactive securing of underpinning data during borehole/latrine installations. On-going concerns are wide ranging, including poorly constrained pit-latrine input, difficulties in assessing in-situ plume natural attenuation and possible disposal of used motor oils to latrines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Slums are faced with several challenges including lack of sanitation facilities. This lack is further compounded by the difficulty in determining an appropriate sanitation technology due to the challenging living conditions. An appropriate technology should, among others, consider the conditions of each settlement as well as views of the slum residents. Through interviews and participatory discussions, residents of the slums in Kisumu city identified sanitation technologies they preferred, and the reasons for or against these technologies. These responses were pointers to characteristics of an appropriate technology for the slums. Pit latrines, ecological sanitation and flush toilets were identified, but residents selected pit latrines as appropriate for their settlements. The results mean that technically, an ideal technology should be easy to construct and use, be socioculturally acceptable, environmentally friendly and economically affordable. This article calls for cooperation among stakeholders, including landlords and tenants in decision-making for sanitation in slums. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current practices of faecal sludge management in urban slums pose risks to public health and environmental pollution. Given that faecal sludge contains high water content, dewatering it presents an important step of managing it effectively. This paper therefore explores the applicability of dewatering as the first step in decentralized treatment of faecal sludge (FS) generated from pit latrines, the commonest sanitation technology used in urban slums. A total of 22 and 10 FS samples were collected from lined and unlined pit latrines, respectively. The high moisture content of 92.4 and 83.4 % of FS from lined and unlined pit latrines, respectively, depicted a need for dewatering. Dewaterability extent and rate were measured in terms of per cent cake solids and capillary suction time, respectively. The average dewaterability extent of FS from unlined pit latrines (31.8 %) was significantly higher than that of lined latrines (18.6 %) ( p = 0.000) while the dewaterability rate (1122 and 1485 s of FS from lined and unlined pits, respectively) was not significantly different ( p = 0.104), although very low compared to sewage sludge. To obtain high dewaterability extent of FS from lined pit latrines, volatile solids should be reduced and sand content increased. To maintain high dewaterability extent of FS from unlined pit latrines, the particle sizes should be ≤1 mm. The results from this study suggest that FS from pit latrines in Kampala can be conveniently dewatered without thickening, thereby reducing costs of FS management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lack of potable water, poor hygiene practices and inefficient sanitation systems in developing countries pose a risk to human health. Pit latrines aim to break the link between human faecal waste and human contact by serving as improved sanitation. The eThekwini Municipality has developed a programme that employs workers to empty pits every 3 to 5 years. This study aimed to find a cost-effective, easy way of disinfecting household surfaces and inactivating Ascaris eggs using household disinfectants, so that transmission of helminths is minimised when pits are emptied. Disinfectants tested in this study were based on sodium hypochlorite or carbolic acid. Experiments simulated inactivation of Ascaris eggs by wiping contaminated surfaces with disinfectants and by soaking small spills in disinfectants. Samples were processed using standard helminth egg enumeration methods for soil and sludge. Wiping of contaminated surfaces removed Ascaris eggs, facilitating egg transfer but not egg inactivation. Prolonged exposure to disinfectants, at concentrations of 50% and above, were required to inactivate eggs. Sodium hypochlorite-based disinfectants were the most successful for inactivation, whilst those based on carbolic acid were mostly ineffective. It is recommended that faecal sludge spills are soaked in a sodium hypochlorite-based disinfectant and contaminated surfaces be wiped with a sodium hypochlorite-based disinfectantsaturated cloth, which should then be soaked for 1 h in a similar disinfectant solution (50% dilution) to inactivate any eggs picked up on the cloth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sustainable Development Goals will challenge low- and middle-income settings to look at new approaches for rural sanitation. In 2013, Mzuzu University, in partnership with United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Malawi, started a low-cost latrine program in rural areas using the corbelled latrine design supported by locally owned sustainable businesses. The objective of this work was to trace customers (early household adopters) and non-customers through field observations and interviews in 15 districts of Malawi. The research team spent 193 personnel work days in data collection and found 21 households as adopters in 7 districts. Most respondents had a preference with regard to the design of the sanitation facility they would like to use. Although sharing of sanitation facilities was common, the corbelled latrine is promoted as a single household pit latrine design. Unfortunately, 8% (23/304) of non-adopters responded they practiced open defecation. Households were satisfied with the corbelled latrine design, and no latrine was found to have collapsed during field visits. To promote the corbelled latrine in Malawi, the following are recommended: (1) education of frontline government extension workers towards non-subsidized household latrines; (2) identification of rural low-income households as the best target for potential adopters; and (3) linkage of low-cost sanitation technologies to community mobilization campaigns led by the government, such as Community Led Total Sanitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a great need for decentralized anaerobic digestion (AD) that utilizes wastewater for energy generation. The biochemical methane potential (BMP) of Haitian latrine waste was determined and compared to other waste streams, such as grey water, septage, and dairy manure. Average methane (CH 4 ) production for the latrine waste (13.6 ml ml −1 substrate) was 23 times greater than septage (0.58 ml ml −1 substrate), and 151 times greater than grey water (0.09 ml ml −1 substrate), illustrating the larger potential when waste is source separated using the decentralized sanitation and reuse (DESAR) concept for more appropriate treatment of each waste stream. Using the BMP results, methane production based on various AD configurations was calculated, and compared with the full-scale field AD design. Methane potential from the BMP testing was calculated as 0.006–0.017 m 3 person −1 day −1 using the lowest and highest latrine BMP results, which was similar to the values from the full-scale system (0.011 m 3 person −1 day −1 ), illustrating the ability of BMPs to be used to predict biogas production from sanitation digesters in a smaller-scale setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A pit latrine is the most basic form of improved sanitation which is currently used by a number of people around the globe. In spite of the wide spread use, known successes and advantages associated with pit latrines, they have received little attention in form of research and development. This review focuses on the usage and performance (filling, smell and insect nuisance) of pit latrines in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and proposes approaches for their improvements and sustainability.Methods: Current pit latrine usage within urban SSA was calculated from Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) water and sanitation country-files. We conducted a literature search and review of documents on pit latrine usage, filling, smell and insect nuisances in urban areas of SSA. Findings of the review are presented and discussed in this paper.Results and Discussion: Pit latrines are in use by more than half the urban population in SSA and especially among low income earners. An additional 36 million people in urban areas of SSA have adopted the pit latrine since 2007. However, their performance is unsatisfactory. Available literature shows that contributions have been made to address shortfalls related to pit latrine use in terms of science and technological innovations. However, further research is still needed.Conclusion: Any technology and process management innovations to pit latrines should involve scientifically guided approaches. In addition, development, dissemination and enforcement of minimum pit latrine design standards are important while the importance of hygienic latrines should also be emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]