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Acetylcholine esterases (AChEs) are essential enzymes in cholinergic synapses, terminating neurotransmission by hydrolysing acetylcholine. While membrane bound AChEs at synaptic clefts efficiently perform this task, soluble AChEs are less stable and effective, but function over broader areas. In vertebrates, a single gene produces alternatively spliced forms of AChE, whereas invertebrates often have multiple genes, producing both enzyme types. Despite their significance as pesticide targets, the physiological roles of invertebrate AChEs remain unclear. Here, we characterized seven putative AChEs in the wandering spider, Cupiennius salei, a model species for neurophysiological studies. Sequence analyses and homology modeling predicted CsAChE7 as the sole stable, membrane‐bound enzyme functioning at synaptic clefts, while the others are likely soluble enzymes. In situ hybridization of sections from the spider's nervous system revealed CsAChE7 transcripts co‐localizing with choline acetyltransferase in cells that also exhibited AChE activity. CsAChE7 transcripts were also found in rapidly adapting mechanosensory neurons, suggesting a role in precise and transient activation of postsynaptic cells, contrasting with slowly adapting, also cholinergic, neurons expressing only soluble AChEs, which allow prolonged activation of postsynaptic cells. These findings suggest that cholinergic transmission is influenced not only by postsynaptic receptors but also by the enzymatic properties regulating acetylcholine clearance. We also show that acetylcholine is a crucial neurotransmitter in the spider's visual system and sensory and motor pathways, but absent in excitatory motor neurons at neuromuscular junctions, consistent with other arthropods. Our findings on sequence structures may have implications for the development of neurological drugs and pesticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells play a pivotal role in cerebellar function. They are intricately governed by a variety of presynaptic receptors, notably by type 4metabotropic glutamate (mGlu4) receptors and type 1 adenosine (A1) receptors both of which curtail glutamate release upon activation. Despite their pivotal role in regulating synaptic transmission within the cerebellar cortex, functional interactions between mGlu4 and A1 receptors have remained relatively unexplored. To bridge this gap, our study delves into how mGlu4 receptor activity influences A1 receptor-mediated alterations in excitatory transmission. Employing a combination of whole-cell patch clamp recordings of Purkinje cells and parallel fiber presynaptic fluorometric calcium measurements in acute rat andmouse cerebellar cortical slices, our results reveal functional interactions between these receptor types. These findings hold implications for understanding potential roles of these presynaptic receptors in neuroprotection during pathophysiological conditions characterized by elevated glutamate and adenosine levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key points Dynamins are GTPases required for pinching vesicles off the plasma membrane once a critical curvature is reached during endocytosis. Here, we probed dynamin function in central synapses by depleting all three dynamin isoforms in postnatal hippocampal neurons down to negligible levels. We found a decrease in the propensity of evoked neurotransmission as well as a reduction in synaptic vesicle numbers. Recycling of synaptic vesicles during spontaneous or low levels of evoked activity were largely impervious to dynamin depletion, while retrieval of synaptic vesicle components at higher levels of activity was partially arrested. These results suggest the existence of balancing dynamin‐independent mechanisms for synaptic vesicle recycling at central synapses. Classical dynamin‐dependent mechanisms are not essential for retrieval of synaptic vesicle proteins after quantal single synaptic vesicle fusion, but they become more relevant for membrane retrieval during intense, sustained neuronal activity. Loss of dynamin 2 does not impair synaptic transmission. Loss of all three dynamin isoforms mostly affects evoked neurotransmission. Excitatory synapse function is more susceptible to dynamin loss. Spontaneous neurotransmission is only mildly affected by loss of dynamins. Single synaptic vesicle endocytosis is largely dynamin independent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whole-body vibration (WBV) therapy is a way of passive exercise in which subjects are exposed to mild and well-controlled mechanical vibrations through a vibrating platform. For a long time, studies have focused on the effects and applications of WBV to enhance musculoskeletal performance in athletes and patients suffering from musculoskeletal disorders. Recent evidence points toward the positive effect of WBV on the brain and its therapeutic potential in brain disorders. Research being done in the field gradually reveals cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying WBV affecting the body and brain. Particularly, the influence of WBV on immune and brain function is a growing field that warrants an up-to-date and integrated review. Immune function is closely intertwined with brain functioning and plays a significant role in various brain disorders. Dysregulation of the immune response is linked to conditions such as neuroinflammation, neurodegenerative diseases, and mood disorders, highlighting the crucial connection between the immune system and the brain. This review aims to explore the impact of WBV on the cellular and molecular pathways involved in immune and brain functions. Understanding the effects of WBV at a cellular and molecular level will aid in optimizing WBV protocols to improve its therapeutic potential for brain disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractMajor Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common condition with complex psychological and biological background. While its aetiology is still unclear, chronic stress stands amongst major risk factors to MDD pathogenesis. When researching on MDD, it is necessary to be familiar with the neurobiological effects of several prominent contributors to the chronic stress factor experienced across hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, neurotransmission, immune system reflexivity, and genetic alterations. Bi-directional flow of MDD pathogenesis suggests that psychological factors produce biological effects. Here, a summary of how the MDD expresses its mechanisms of action across an overactive HPA axis, the negative impacts of reduced neurotransmitter functions, the inflammatory responses and their gene x environment interactions. This paper builds on these conceptual factors and their input towards the MDD symptomatology with a purpose of synthesising the current findings and create an integrated view of the MDD pathogenesis. Finally, relevant treatment implications will be summarised, along with recommendations to a multimodal clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copper is a trace element whose electronic configuration provides it with essential structural and catalytic functions. However, in excess, both its high protein affinity and redox-catalyzing properties can lead to hazardous consequences. In addition to promoting oxidative stress, copper is gaining interest for its effects on neurotransmission through modulation of GABAergic and glutamatergic receptors and interaction with the dopamine reuptake transporter. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of copper overexposure on the levels of dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin, or their main metabolites in rat's striatum extracellular fluid. Copper was injected intraperitoneally using our previously developed model, which ensured striatal overconcentration (2 mg CuCl2/kg for 30 days). Subsequently, extracellular fluid was collected by microdialysis on days 0, 15, and 30. Dopamine (DA), 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), and noradrenaline (NA) levels were then determined by HPLC coupled with electrochemical detection. We observed a significant increase in the basal levels of DA and HVA after 15 days of treatment (310% and 351%), which was maintained after 30 days (358% and 402%), with no significant changes in the concentrations of 5-HIAA, DOPAC, and NA. Copper overload led to a marked increase in synaptic DA concentration, which could contribute to the psychoneurological alterations and the increased oxidative toxicity observed in Wilson's disease and other copper dysregulation states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The appropriate growth of the neurons, accurate organization of their synapses, and successful neurotransmission are indispensable for sensorimotor activities. These processes are highly dynamic and tightly regulated. Extensive genetic, molecular, physiological, and behavioral studies have identified many molecular candidates and investigated their roles in various neuromuscular processes. In this article, we show that Beadex (Bx), the Drosophila LIM only (LMO) protein, is required for motor activities and neuromuscular growth of Drosophila. The larvae bearing Bx7, a null allele of Bx, and the RNAi-mediated neuronal-specific knockdown of Bx show drastically reduced crawling behavior, a diminished synaptic span of the neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and an increased spontaneous neuronal firing with altered motor patterns in the central pattern generators (CPGs). Microarray studies identified multiple targets of Beadex that are involved in different cellular and molecular pathways, including those associated with the cytoskeleton and mitochondria that could be responsible for the observed neuromuscular defects. With genetic interaction studies, we further show that Highwire (Hiw), a negative regulator of synaptic growth at the NMJs, negatively regulates Bx, as the latter's deficiency was able to rescue the phenotype of the Hiw null mutant, HiwDN. Thus, our data indicate that Beadex functions downstream of Hiw to regulate the larval synaptic growth and physiology. NEW & NOTEWORTHY: A novel role for Beadex (Bx) regulates the larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ) structure and function in a tissue-specific manner. Bx is expressed in a subset of Toll-6-expressing neurons and is involved in regulating synaptic span and physiology, possibly through its negative interaction with Highwire (Hiw). The findings of this study provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying NMJ development and function and warrant further investigation to understand the role of Bx in these processes fully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phospholipids (PLs) are asymmetrically distributed at the plasma membrane. This asymmetric lipid distribution is transiently altered during calcium-regulated exocytosis, but the impact of this transient remodeling on presynaptic function is currently unknown. As phospholipid scramblase 1 (PLSCR1) randomizes PL distribution between the two leaflets of the plasma membrane in response to calcium activation, we set out to determine its role in neurotransmission. We report here that PLSCR1 is expressed in cerebellar granule cells (GrCs) and that PLSCR1-dependent phosphatidylserine egress occurred at synapses in response to neuron stimulation. Synaptic transmission is impaired at GrC Plscr1-/- synapses, and both PS egress and synaptic vesicle (SV) endocytosis are inhibited in Plscr1-/- cultured neurons from male and female mice, demonstrating that PLSCR1 controls PL asymmetry remodeling and SV retrieval following neurotransmitter release. Altogether, our data reveal a novel key role for PLSCR1 in SV recycling and provide the first evidence that PL scrambling at the plasma membrane is a prerequisite for optimal presynaptic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amino acid neurotransmitters, including glutamate, phenylalanine, tyrosine, alanine, and glycine, underlie the majority of the excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in the nervous system, and acute exercise has been shown to modulate their concentrations. We aimed to determine whether any correlation exists between the above-mentioned amino acid blood concentrations and the neuropsychological performance after an acute exercise intervention. Sixty basketball players were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions: exercise or inactive resting. All participants underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment and blood samples were taken on a Guthrie card before and after the end of the experimental conditions. Amino acid blood concentrations were significantly elevated and cognitive performance significantly improved post-exercise on specific neuropsychological assessments. Significant intervention × group interaction effects were apparent for Trail Making Test part-B [F(1,58) = 20.46, p <.0001, η2 =.26] and Digit Span Backwards [F(1,58) = 15.47, p <.0001, η2 =.21] neuropsychological assessments. Additionally, regression analysis indicated that tyrosine accounted for 38.0% of the variance in the Trail Making Test part-A test. These results suggest that elevated blood concentrations of neurotransmission-related amino acids are associated with improved neuropsychological performance after a single bout of high-intensity exercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate for associations between the occurrence of palpitations reported by women prior to breast cancer surgery and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for neurotransmitter genes. SAMPLE & SETTING: A total of 398 women, who were scheduled for unilateral breast cancer surgery, provided detailed information on demographic and clinical characteristics and the occurrence of palpitations prior to breast cancer surgery. METHODS & VARIABLES: The occurrence of palpitations was assessed using a single item (i.e., "heart races/pounds" in the past week ["yes"/"no"]). Blood samples were collected for genomic analyses. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to identify associations between the occurrence of palpitations and variations in neurotransmitter genes. RESULTS: Nine SNPs and two haplotypes among 11 candidate genes were associated with the occurrence of palpitations. These genes encode for a number of neurotransmitters and/or their receptors, including serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, gammaamino butyric acid, Substance P, and neurokinin. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: These findings suggest that alterations in a variety of neurotransmitters contribute to the development of this symptom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing evidence that in the absence of pathology, serine-129 phosphorylation of α-synuclein (αS) serves the purpose of fine-tuning the synaptic function of αS. We posit that pS129 has a dual role in health and disease: a physiological role in regulating αS biology, and a pathological role related to the deposition of insoluble αS into Lewy bodies. We further propose that there is no direct conversion of physiological to pathological pS129. Instead, physiological pS129 is driven by a pathway that involves neuronal activity, calcium, calcineurin, polo-like kinase 2 (Plk2), and protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), and is readily reversible. Pathological pS129 likely accumulates because aggregated αS is easier for Plk2 to phosphorylate and/or more difficult for PP2A to dephosphorylate than native αS. α-Synuclein (αS) is an abundant presynaptic protein that regulates neurotransmission. It is also a key protein implicated in a broad class of neurodegenerative disorders termed synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and Lewy body dementia (LBD). Pathological αS deposits in these diseases, Lewy bodies (LBs)/neurites (LNs), contain about 90% of αS in its phospho-serine129 (pS129) form. Therefore, pS129 is widely used as a surrogate marker of pathology. However, recent findings demonstrate that pS129 is also physiologically triggered by neuronal activity to positively regulate synaptic transmission. In this opinion article, we contrast the literature on pathological and physiological pS129, with a special focus on the latter. We emphasize that pS129 is ambiguous and knowledge about the context is necessary to correctly interpret changes in pS129. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental pollutants have been linked to neurotoxicity and are proposed to contribute to neurodegenerative disorders. The zebrafish model provides a high-throughput platform for large-scale chemical screening and toxicity assessment and is widely accepted as an important animal model for the investigation of neurodegenerative disorders. Although recent studies explore the roles of environmental pollutants in neurodegenerative disorders in zebrafish models, current knowledge of the mechanisms of environmentally induced neurodegenerative disorders is relatively complex and overlapping. This review primarily discusses utilizing embryonic zebrafish as the model to investigate environmental pollutants-related neurodegenerative disease. We also review current applicable approaches and important biomarkers to unravel the underlying mechanism of environmentally related neurodegenerative disorders. We found embryonic zebrafish to be a powerful tool that provides a platform for evaluating neurotoxicity triggered by environmentally relevant concentrations of neurotoxic compounds. Additionally, using variable approaches to assess neurotoxicity in the embryonic zebrafish allows researchers to have insights into the complex interaction between environmental pollutants and neurodegenerative disorders and, ultimately, an understanding of the underlying mechanisms related to environmental toxicants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The nervous system is central to coordinating behavioural responses to environmental change, likely including ocean acidification (OA). However, a clear understanding of neurobiological responses to OA is lacking, especially for marine invertebrates. Results We evaluated the transcriptomic response of the central nervous system (CNS) and eyes of the two-toned pygmy squid (Idiosepius pygmaeus) to OA conditions, using a de novo transcriptome assembly created with long read PacBio ISO-sequencing data. We then correlated patterns of gene expression with CO2 treatment levels and OA-affected behaviours in the same individuals. OA induced transcriptomic responses within the nervous system related to various different types of neurotransmission, neuroplasticity, immune function and oxidative stress. These molecular changes may contribute to OA-induced behavioural changes, as suggested by correlations among gene expression profiles, CO2 treatment and OA-affected behaviours. Conclusions This study provides the first molecular insights into the neurobiological effects of OA on a cephalopod and correlates molecular changes with whole animal behavioural responses, helping to bridge the gaps in our knowledge between environmental change and animal responses.

Background: The nervous system is central to coordinating behavioural responses to environmental change, likely including ocean acidification (OA). However, a clear understanding of neurobiological responses to OA is lacking, especially for marine invertebrates. Results: We evaluated the transcriptomic response of the central nervous system (CNS) and eyes of the two-toned pygmy squid (Idiosepius pygmaeus) to OA conditions, using a de novo transcriptome assembly created with long read PacBio ISO-sequencing data. We then correlated patterns of gene expression with CO2 treatment levels and OA-affected behaviours in the same individuals. OA induced transcriptomic responses within the nervous system related to various different types of neurotransmission, neuroplasticity, immune function and oxidative stress. These molecular changes may contribute to OA-induced behavioural changes, as suggested by correlations among gene expression profiles, CO2 treatment and OA-affected behaviours. Conclusions: This study provides the first molecular insights into the neurobiological effects of OA on a cephalopod and correlates molecular changes with whole animal behavioural responses, helping to bridge the gaps in our knowledge between environmental change and animal responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances have demonstrated that Traf2- and Nck-interacting kinase (TNIK) is a key regulator of physiological and pathological metabolic signaling during cancer, obesity, and neurodegeneration. Understanding how changes in TNIK activity arise with age during the onset of age-related disorders will be valuable in designing TNIK-targeting therapeutics. We review the TNIK inhibitor landscape in preclinical and clinical testing in age-related diseases. Traf2- and Nck-interacting kinase (TNIK) has emerged as a key regulator of pathological metabolic signaling in several diseases and is a promising drug target. Originally studied for its role in cell migration and proliferation, TNIK possesses several newly identified functions that drive the pathogenesis of multiple diseases. Specifically, we evaluate TNIK's newfound roles in cancer, metabolic disorders, and neuronal function. We emphasize the implications of TNIK signaling in metabolic signaling and evaluate the translational potential of these discoveries. We also highlight how TNIK's role in many biological processes converges upon several hallmarks of aging. We conclude by discussing the therapeutic landscape of TNIK-targeting drugs and the recent success of clinical trials targeting TNIK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) refers to damage to brain tissue by mechanical or blunt force via trauma. TBI is often associated with impaired cognitive abilities, like difficulties in memory, learning, attention, and other higher brain functions, that typically remain for years after the injury. Lithium is an elementary light metal that is only utilized in salt form due to its high intrinsic reactivity. This current review discusses the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic and neuroprotective effects of lithium in TBI. Method: The "Boolean logic" was used to search for articles on the subject matter in PubMed and PubMed Central, as well as Google Scholar. Results: Lithium's therapeutic action is extremely complex, involving multiple effects on gene secretion, neurotransmitter or receptor‐mediated signaling, signal transduction processes, circadian modulation, as well as ion transport. Lithium is able to normalize multiple short‐ as well as long‐term modifications in neuronal circuits that ultimately result in disparity in cortical excitation and inhibition activated by TBI. Also, lithium levels are more distinct in the hippocampus, thalamus, neo‐cortex, olfactory bulb, amygdala as well as the gray matter of the cerebellum following treatment of TBI. Conclusion: Lithium attenuates neuroinflammation and neuronal toxicity as well as protects the brain from edema, hippocampal neurodegeneration, loss of hemispheric tissues, and enhanced memory as well as spatial learning after TBI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synapses maintain two forms of neurotransmitter release to support communication in the brain. First, evoked neurotransmitter release is triggered by the invasion of an action potential (AP) across en passant boutons that form along axons. The probability of evoked release (Pr) varies substantially across boutons, even within a single axon. Such heterogeneity is the result of differences in the probability of a single synaptic vesicle (SV) fusing (Pv) and in the number of vesicles available for immediate release, known as the readily releasable pool (RRP). Spontaneous release (also known as a mini) is an important form of neurotransmission that occurs in the absence of APs. Because it cannot be triggered with electrical stimulation, much less is known about potential heterogeneity in the frequency of spontaneous release between boutons. We utilized a photostable and bright fluorescent indicator of glutamate release (iGluSnFR3) to quantify both spontaneous and evoked release at individual glutamatergic boutons. We found that the rate of spontaneous release is quite heterogenous at the level of individual boutons. Interestingly, when measuring both evoked and spontaneous release at single synapses, we found that boutons with the highest rates of spontaneous release also displayed the largest evoked responses. Using a new optical method to measure RRP at individual boutons, we found that this heterogeneity in spontaneous release was strongly correlated with the size of the RRP, but not related to Pv. We conclude that the RRP is a critical and dynamic aspect of synaptic strength that contributes to both evoked and spontaneous vesicle release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ~1:1 stoichiometry between the rates of neuronal glucose oxidation (CMRglc-ox–N) and glutamate (Glu)/γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-glutamine (Gln) neurotransmitter (NT) cycling between neurons and astrocytes (VNTcycle) has been firmly established. However, the mechanistic basis for this relationship is not fully understood, and this knowledge is critical for the interpretation of metabolic and brain imaging studies in normal and diseased brain. The pseudo-malate-aspartate shuttle (pseudo-MAS) model established the requirement for glycolytic metabolism in cultured glutamatergic neurons to produce NADH that is shuttled into mitochondria to support conversion of extracellular Gln (i.e., astrocyte-derived Gln in vivo) into vesicular neurotransmitter Glu. The evaluation of this model revealed that it could explain half of the 1:1 stoichiometry and it has limitations. Modifications of the pseudo-MAS model were, therefore, devised to address major knowledge gaps, that is, submitochondrial glutaminase location, identities of mitochondrial carriers for Gln and other model components, alternative mechanisms to transaminate α-ketoglutarate to form Glu and shuttle glutamine-derived ammonia while maintaining mass balance. All modified models had a similar 0.5 to 1.0 predicted mechanistic stoichiometry between VNTcycle and the rate of glucose oxidation. Based on studies of brain β-hydroxybutyrate oxidation, about half of CMRglc-ox–N may be linked to glutamatergic neurotransmission and localized in pre-synaptic structures that use pseudo-MAS type mechanisms for Glu-Gln cycling. In contrast, neuronal compartments that do not participate in transmitter cycling may use the MAS to sustain glucose oxidation. The evaluation of subcellular compartmentation of neuronal glucose metabolism in vivo is a critically important topic for future studies to understand glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency (SSADHD) is a rare neurometabolic disorder caused by disruption of the gamma‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathway. A more detailed understanding of its pathophysiology, beyond the accumulation of GABA and gamma‐hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), will increase our understanding of the disease and may support novel therapy development. To this end, we compared biochemical body fluid profiles from SSADHD patients with controls using next‐generation metabolic screening (NGMS). Targeted analysis of NGMS data from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) showed a moderate increase of aspartic acid, glutaric acid, glycolic acid, 4‐guanidinobutanoic acid, and 2‐hydroxyglutaric acid, and prominent elevations of GHB and 4,5‐dihydroxyhexanoic acid (4,5‐DHHA) in SSADHD samples. Remarkably, the intensities of 4,5‐DHHA and GHB showed a significant positive correlation in control CSF, but not in patient CSF. In an established zebrafish epilepsy model, 4,5‐DHHA showed increased mobility that may reflect limited epileptogenesis. Using untargeted metabolomics, we identified 12 features in CSF with high biomarker potential. These had comparable increased fold changes as GHB and 4,5‐DHHA. For 10 of these features, a similar increase was found in plasma, urine and/or mouse brain tissue for SSADHD compared to controls. One of these was identified as the novel biomarker 4,5‐dihydroxyheptanoic acid. The intensities of selected features in plasma and urine of SSADHD patients positively correlated with the clinical severity score of epilepsy and psychiatric symptoms of those patients, and also showed a high mutual correlation. Our findings provide new insights into the (neuro)metabolic disturbances in SSADHD and give leads for further research concerning SSADHD pathophysiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a critical role in synaptic physiology, as well as mechanisms underlying various neuropsychiatric diseases and their treatment. Despite its clear physiological role and disease relevance, BDNF's function at the presynaptic terminal, a fundamental unit of neurotransmission, remains poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated single synapse dynamics using optical imaging techniques in hippocampal cell cultures. We find that exogenous BDNF selectively increases evoked excitatory neurotransmission without affecting spontaneous neurotransmission. However, acutely blocking endogenous BDNF has no effect on evoked or spontaneous release, demonstrating that different approaches to studying BDNF may yield different results. When we suppressed BDNF-Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) activity chronically over a period of days to weeks using a mouse line enabling conditional knockout of TrkB, we found that evoked glutamate release was significantly decreased while spontaneous release remained unchanged. Moreover, chronic blockade of BDNF-TrkB activity selectively downscales evoked calcium transients without affecting spontaneous calcium events. Via pharmacological blockade by voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) selective blockers, we found that the changes in evoked calcium transients are mediated by the P/Q subtype of VGCCs. These results suggest that BDNF-TrkB activity increases presynaptic VGCC activity to selectively increase evoked glutamate release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This preface introduces the Journal of Neurochemistry special issue on Cholinergic Mechanisms that highlights the progress in the molecular, structural, neurochemical, pharmacological, toxicological, and clinical studies of the cholinergic system which underline its complexity and impact on health and disease. This issue comprises of (systematic) reviews and original articles, the majority of which have been presented at the 17th International Symposium on Cholinergic Mechanisms (ISCM2022) held in Dubrovnik, Croatia in May 2022. The symposium brought together leading "Cholinergikers" to shed new light on cholinergic transmission, ranging from the molecular to the clinical and cognitive mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Pain is a clinically relevant health care issue with limited therapeutic options, creating the need for new and improved analgesic strategies. The amygdala is a limbic brain region critically involved in the regulation of emotional-affective components of pain and in pain modulation. The central nucleus of amygdala (CeA) serves major output functions and receives nociceptive information via the external lateral parabrachial nucleus (PB). While amygdala neuroplasticity has been linked causally to pain behaviors, non-neuronal pain mechanisms in this region remain to be explored. As an essential part of the neuroimmune system, astrocytes that represent about 40--50% of glia cells within the central nervous system, are required for physiological neuronal functions, but their role in the amygdala remains to be determined for pain conditions. In this study, we measured time-specific astrocyte activation in the CeA in a neuropathic pain model (spinal nerve ligation, SNL) and assessed the effects of astrocyte inhibition on amygdala neuroplasticity and pain-like behaviors in the pain condition. Methods and Results: Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, astrocytic marker) immunoreactivity and mRNA expression were increased at the chronic (4 weeks post-SNL), but not acute (1 week post-SNL), stage of neuropathic pain. In order to determine the contribution of astrocytes to amygdala pain-mechanisms, we used fluorocitric acid (FCA), a selective inhibitor of astrocyte metabolism. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were performed from neurons in the laterocapsular division of the CeA (CeLC) obtained from chronic neuropathic rats. Preincubation of brain slices with FCA (100 µM, 1 h), increased excitability through altered hyperpolarization-activated current (Ih) functions, without significantly affecting synaptic responses at the PB-CeLC synapse. Intra-CeA injection of FCA (100 µM) had facilitatory effects on mechanical withdrawal thresholds (von Frey and paw pressure tests) and emotional-affective behaviors (evoked vocalizations), but not on facial grimace score and anxiety-like behaviors (open field test), in chronic neuropathic rats. Selective inhibition of astrocytes by FCA was confirmed with immunohistochemical analyses showing decreased astrocytic GFAP, but not NeuN, signal in the CeA. Discussion: Overall, these results suggest a complex modulation of amygdala pain functions by astrocytes and provide evidence for beneficial functions of astrocytes in CeA in chronic neuropathic pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used light-sensitive drugs to identify the brain region-specific role of mGlu5 metabotropic glutamate receptors in the control of pain. Optical activation of systemic JF-NP-26, a caged, normally inactive, negative allosteric modulator (NAM) of mGlu5 receptors, in cingulate, prelimbic, and infralimbic cortices and thalamus inhibited neuropathic pain hypersensitivity. Systemic treatment of alloswitch-1, an intrinsically active mGlu5 receptor NAM, caused analgesia, and the effect was reversed by light-induced drug inactivation in the prelimbic and infralimbic cortices, and thalamus. This demonstrates that mGlu5 receptor blockade in the medial prefrontal cortex and thalamus is both sufficient and necessary for the analgesic activity of mGlu5 receptor antagonists. Surprisingly, when the light was delivered in the basolateral amygdala, local activation of systemic JF-NP-26 reduced pain thresholds, whereas inactivation of alloswitch-1 enhanced analgesia. Electrophysiological analysis showed that alloswitch-1 increased excitatory synaptic responses in prelimbic pyramidal neurons evoked by stimulation of presumed BLA input, and decreased BLA-driven feedforward inhibition of amygdala output neurons. Both effects were reversed by optical silencing and reinstated by optical reactivation of alloswitch-1. These findings demonstrate for the first time that the action of mGlu5 receptors in the pain neuraxis is not homogenous, and suggest that blockade of mGlu5 receptors in the BLA may limit the overall analgesic activity of mGlu5 receptor antagonists. This could explain the suboptimal effect of mGlu5 NAMs on pain in human studies and validate photopharmacology as an important tool to determine ideal target sites for systemic drugs.

The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells play a pivotal role in cerebellar function. They are intricately governed by a variety of presynaptic receptors, notably by type 4 metabotropic glutamate (mGlu4) receptors and type 1 adenosine (A1) receptors both of which curtail glutamate release upon activation. Despite their pivotal role in regulating synaptic transmission within the cerebellar cortex, functional interactions between mGlu4 and A1 receptors have remained relatively unexplored. To bridge this gap, our study delves into how mGlu4 receptor activity influences A1 receptor-mediated alterations in excitatory transmission. Employing a combination of whole-cell patch clamp recordings of Purkinje cells and parallel fiber presynaptic fluorometric calcium measurements in acute rat and mouse cerebellar cortical slices, our results reveal functional interactions between these receptor types. These findings hold implications for understanding potential roles of these presynaptic receptors in neuroprotection during pathophysiological conditions characterized by elevated glutamate and adenosine levels.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) therapy is a way of passive exercise in which subjects are exposed to mild and well-controlled mechanical vibrations through a vibrating platform. For a long time, studies have focused on the effects and applications of WBV to enhance musculoskeletal performance in athletes and patients suffering from musculoskeletal disorders. Recent evidence points toward the positive effect of WBV on the brain and its therapeutic potential in brain disorders. Research being done in the field gradually reveals cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying WBV affecting the body and brain. Particularly, the influence of WBV on immune and brain function is a growing field that warrants an up-to-date and integrated review. Immune function is closely intertwined with brain functioning and plays a significant role in various brain disorders. Dysregulation of the immune response is linked to conditions such as neuroinflammation, neurodegenerative diseases, and mood disorders, highlighting the crucial connection between the immune system and the brain. This review aims to explore the impact of WBV on the cellular and molecular pathways involved in immune and brain functions. Understanding the effects of WBV at a cellular and molecular level will aid in optimizing WBV protocols to improve its therapeutic potential for brain disorders.

[Display omitted] N -(1,3-dimethylbutyl)- N ′-phenyl- p -phenylenediamine quinone (6PPDQ) has attracted significant attention due to its highly acute lethality to sensitive salmonids. However, studies investigating the mechanisms underlying its acute toxicity have been lacking. In this work, we demonstrated the sensitivity of rainbow trout to 6PPDQ-induced mortality. Moribund trout exhibited significantly higher brain concentrations of 6PPDQ compared to surviving trout. In an in vitro model using human brain microvascular endothelial cells, 6PPDQ can penetrate the blood–brain barrier and enhance blood–brain barrier permeability without compromising cell viability. The time spent in the top of the tank increased with rising 6PPDQ concentrations, as indicated by locomotion behavior tests. Furthermore, 6PPDQ influenced neurotransmitter levels and mRNA expression of neurotransmission-related genes in the brain and exhibited strong binding affinity to target neurotransmission-related proteins using computational simulations. The integrated biomarker response value associated with neurotoxicity showed a positive linear correlation with trout mortality. These findings significantly contribute to filling the knowledge gap between neurological impairments and apical outcomes, including behavioral effects and mortality, induced by 6PPDQ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Xanthurenic acid (XA) raises a growing multidisciplinary interest based upon its oxidizing properties, its ability to complex certain metal ions, and its detoxifier capacity of 3‐hydroxykynurenine (3‐HK), its brain precursor. However, little is still known about the role and mechanisms of action of XA in the central nervous system (CNS). Therefore, many research groups have recently investigated XA and its central functions extensively. The present paper critically reviews and discusses all major data related to XA properties and neuronal activities to contribute to the improvement of the current knowledge on XA's central roles and mechanisms of action. In particular, our data showed the existence of a specific G‐protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) for XA localized exclusively in brain neurons exhibiting Ca2+‐dependent dendritic release and specific electrophysiological responses. XA properties and central activities suggest a role for this compound in brain intercellular signaling. Indeed, XA stimulates cerebral dopamine (DA) release contrary to its structural analog, kynurenic acid (KYNA). Thus, KYNA/XA ratio could be fundamental in the regulation of brain glutamate and DA release. Cerebral XA may also represent an homeostatic signal between the periphery and several brain regions where XA accumulates easily after peripheral administration. Therefore, XA status in certain psychoses or neurodegenerative diseases seems to be reinforced by its brain‐specific properties in balance with its formation and peripheral inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1) is a stress-responsive calcium/calmodulin (CaM)-regulated serine/threonine protein kinase that is actively involved in stress-induced cell death. The dysregulation of DAPK1 has been established in various neurological disorders such as epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent research indicates a synaptic localization of DAPK1 in neurons, suggesting a potential role of DAPK1 in modulating synaptic structure and function. However, the key molecules and pathways underlying the influence of DAPK1 on synapses remain elusive. We utilized quantitative proteomic and phosphoproteomic analyses to compare the differences in protein expression and phosphorylation in hippocampal tissues of wild-type (WT) and DAPK1-knockout (KO) mice. Bioinformatic analysis of differentially expressed proteins and phosphoproteins revealed a preferential enrichment of proteins involved in regulating synaptic function, cytoskeletal structure, and neurotransmission. Gene set enrichment analysis (GESA) highlighted altered presynaptic functions including synaptic vesicle priming and glutamate secretion in KO mice. Besides, we observed that proteins with potential phosphorylation motifs of ERK and DAPK1 were overrepresented among the differential phosphoproteins and were highly enriched in neuronal function-related pathways. Furthermore, Western blot analysis validated differences in the expression of several proteins closely associated with presynaptic organization, dendrites and calcium transmembrane transport between KO and WT mice, further corroborating the potential involvement of DAPK1 in the regulation of synaptic functions. Overall, our data provide molecular evidence to elucidate the physiological links between DAPK1 and neuronal functions and help clarify the role of DAPK1 in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic disease characterized by elevated blood glucose levels caused by a lack of insulin production (type 1 diabetes) or insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes). It is well known that DM is associated with cognitive deficits and metabolic and neurophysiological changes in the brain. Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system that plays a key role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory processes. An increasing number of studies have suggested that abnormal activity of the glutamatergic system is implicated in the pathophysiology of DM. Dysfunction of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system can provide an important neurobiological substrate for many disorders. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive technique that allows a better understanding of the central nervous system factors by measuring in vivo the concentrations of brain metabolites within the area of interest. Here, we briefly review the MRS studies that have examined glutamate levels in the brain of patients with DM. The present article also summarizes the available data on abnormalities in glutamatergic neurotransmission observed in different animal models of DM. In addition, the role of gut microbiota in the development of glutamatergic alterations in DM is addressed. We speculate that therapeutic strategies targeting the glutamatergic system may be beneficial in the treatment of central nervous system-related changes in diabetic patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodevelopment, plasticity, and cognition are integral with functional directional transport in neuronal axons that occurs along a unique network of discontinuous polar microtubule (MT) bundles. Axonopathies are caused by brain trauma and genetic diseases that perturb or disrupt the axon MT infrastructure and, with it, the dynamic interplay of motor proteins and cargo essential for axonal maintenance and neuronal signaling. The inability to visualize and quantify normal and altered nanoscale spatio-temporal dynamic transport events prevents a full mechanistic understanding of injury, disease progression, and recovery. To address this gap, we generated DyNAMO, a Dynamic Nanoscale Axonal MT Organization model, which is a biologically realistic theoretical axon framework. We use DyNAMO to experimentally simulate multi-kinesin traffic response to focused or distributed tractable injury parameters, which are MT network perturbations affecting MT lengths and multi-MT staggering. We track kinesins with different motility and processivity, as well as their influx rates, in-transit dissociation and reassociation from inter-MT reservoirs, progression, and quantify and spatially represent motor output ratios. DyNAMO demonstrates, in detail, the complex interplay of mixed motor types, crowding, kinesin off/on dissociation and reassociation, and injury consequences of forced intermingling. Stalled forward progression with different injury states is seen as persistent dynamicity of kinesins transiting between MTs and inter-MT reservoirs. DyNAMO analysis provides novel insights and quantification of axonal injury scenarios, including local injury-affected ATP levels, as well as relates these to influences on signaling outputs, including patterns of gating, waves, and pattern switching. The DyNAMO model significantly expands the network of heuristic and mathematical analysis of neuronal functions relevant to axonopathies, diagnostics, and treatment strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases is an unintended consequence of the high longevity of the population, together with the lack of effective preventive and therapeutic options. There is great pressure on preclinical research, and both old and new models of neurodegenerative diseases are required to increase the pipeline of new drugs for clinical testing. We review here the main models of neurotoxicity-based animal models leading to central neurodegeneration. Our main focus was on studying how changes in neurotransmission and neuroinflammation, mainly in rodent models, contribute to harmful processes linked to neurodegeneration. The majority of the models currently in use mimic Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), which are the most common neurodegenerative conditions in older adults. AD is the most common age-related dementia, whereas PD is the most common movement disorder with also cases of dementia. Several natural toxins and xenobiotic agents induce dopaminergic neurodegeneration and can reproduce neuropathological traits of PD. The literature analysis of MPTP, 6-OH-dopamine, and rotenone models suggested the latter as a useful model when specific doses of rotenone were administrated systemically to C57BL/6 mice. Cholinergic neurodegeneration is mainly modelled with the toxin scopolamine, which is a useful rodent model for the screening of protective drugs against cognitive decline and AD. Several agents have been used to model neuroinflammationbased neurodegeneration and dementia in AD, including lipopolysaccharide (LPS), streptozotocin, and monomeric C-reactive protein. The bacterial agent LPS makes a useful rodent model for testing anti-inflammatory therapies to halt the development and severity of AD. However, neurotoxin models might be more useful than genetic models for drug discovery in PD but that is not the case in AD where they cannot beat the new developments in transgenic mouse models. Overall, we should work using all available models, either in vivo, in vitro, or in silico, considering the seriousness of the moment and urgency of developing effective drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic abnormalities affecting glutamate receptors are central to excitatory overload-driven neuronal mechanisms that culminate in seizures, making them pivotal targets in epilepsy research. Increasingly used to advance this field, the genetically audiogenic seizure hamster from Salamanca (GASH/Sal) exhibits generalized seizures triggered by high-intensity acoustic stimulation and harbors significant genetic variants recently identified through whole-exome sequencing. Here, we addressed the influence of the missense single-nucleotide polymorphism (C9586732T, p.His289Tyr) in the glutamate receptor ionotropic kainate-1 (Grikl) gene and its implications for the GASH/Sal seizure susceptibility. Using a protein 3D structure prediction, we showed a potential effect of this sequence variation, located in the amino-terminal domain, on the stability and/or conformation of the kainate receptor subunit-1 protein (GluK1). We further employed a multi-technique approach, encompassing gene expression analysis (RT-qPCR), Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry in bright-field and confocal fluorescence microscopy, to investigate critical seizure-associated brain regions in GASH/Sal animals under seizure-free conditions compared to matched wild-type controls. We detected disruptions in the transcriptional profile of the Grikl gene within the audiogenic seizure-associated neuronal network. Alterations in GluK1 protein levels were also observed in various brain structures, accompanied by an unexpected lower molecular weight band in the inferior and superior colliculi. This correlated with substantial disparities in GluK1-immunolabeling distribution across multiple brain regions, including the cerebellum, hippocampus, subdivisions of the inferior and superior colliculi, and the prefrontal cortex. Notably, the diffuse immunolabeling accumulated within perikarya, axonal fibers and terminals, exhibiting a prominent concentration in proximity to the cell nucleus. This suggests potential disturbances in the GluK1-trafficking mechanism, which could subsequently affect glutamate synaptic transmission. Overall, our study sheds light on the genetic underpinnings of seizures and underscores the importance of investigating the molecular mechanisms behind synaptic dysfunction in epileptic neural networks, laying a crucial foundation for future research and therapeutic strategies targeting GluKi-containing kainate receptors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epilepsy represents a condition in which abnormal neuronal discharges or the hyperexcitability of neurons occur with synchronicity, presenting a significant public health challenge. Prognostic factors, such as etiology, electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities, the type and number of seizures before treatment, as well as the initial unsatisfactory effects of medications, are important considerations. Although there are several third-generation antiepileptic drugs currently available, their multiple side effects can negatively affect patient quality of life. The inheritance and etiology of epilepsy are complex, involving multiple underlying genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Different neurotransmitters play crucial roles in maintaining the normal physiology of different neurons. Dysregulations in neurotransmission, due to abnormal transmitter levels or changes in their receptors, can result in seizures. In this review, we address the roles played by various neurotransmitters and their receptors in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Furthermore, we extensively explore the neurological mechanisms involved in the development and progression of epilepsy, along with its risk factors. Furthermore, we highlight the new therapeutic targets, along with pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies currently employed in the treatment of epileptic syndromes, including drug interventions employed in clinical trials related to epilepsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how neuronal networks generate complex behavior is one of the major goals of Neuroscience. Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulators are crucial for information flow between neurons and understanding their dynamics is the key to unravel their role in behavior. To understand how the brain transmits information and how brain states arise, it is essential to visualize the dynamics of neurotransmitters, neuromodulators and neurochemicals. In the last five years, an increasing number of single-wavelength biosensors either based on periplasmic binding proteins (PBPs) or on G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) have been published that are able to detect neurotransmitter release in vitro and in vivo with high spatial and temporal resolution. Here we review and discuss recent progress in the development of these sensors, their limitations and future directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Objective. The genus Passiflora incarnata L. is used in traditional medicine for its analgesic, anxiolytic and sedative purposes, and its flavoursome fruits have long been consumed, especially in North America. The aim of the study is to assess the effect of extract of P. incarnata L. on the motor activity of rats. Materials and Method. Behavioural testing was performed in rats previously exposed to P. incarnata L. extract (30, 100, 300 mg/kg b.w). To explain the neurobiochemical background of behavioural changes, the concentration of neurotransmitters after extract consumption were assayed in CNS structures responsible for motor function using High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Results. The study demonstrated that exposure to the extract resulted in dose dependent modulation of rats behaviour, and altered neurotransmission in major elements of the CNS locomotor system. The changes concerned primarily the cerebellar and spinal dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems. Conclusions. Inhibitory effect of P. incarnata L. extract on the GABAergic pathway has potential as a sedative agent and may be promising alternative to benzodiazepines in controlling anxiety and hyperactivity. The significant increase in the level of spinal dopamine may be potentially useful in disorders related to a deficit in dopaminergic neurotransmission. These findings could lead to the development of specific supportive therapies for anxiety and symptoms of gradual loss or impairment of motor behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Introduction Traumatic brain injury (TBI) refers to damage to brain tissue by mechanical or blunt force via trauma. TBI is often associated with impaired cognitive abilities, like difficulties in memory, learning, attention, and other higher brain functions, that typically remain for years after the injury. Lithium is an elementary light metal that is only utilized in salt form due to its high intrinsic reactivity. This current review discusses the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic and neuroprotective effects of lithium in TBI. Method The “Boolean logic” was used to search for articles on the subject matter in PubMed and PubMed Central, as well as Google Scholar. Results Lithium's therapeutic action is extremely complex, involving multiple effects on gene secretion, neurotransmitter or receptor‐mediated signaling, signal transduction processes, circadian modulation, as well as ion transport. Lithium is able to normalize multiple short‐ as well as long‐term modifications in neuronal circuits that ultimately result in disparity in cortical excitation and inhibition activated by TBI. Also, lithium levels are more distinct in the hippocampus, thalamus, neo‐cortex, olfactory bulb, amygdala as well as the gray matter of the cerebellum following treatment of TBI. Conclusion Lithium attenuates neuroinflammation and neuronal toxicity as well as protects the brain from edema, hippocampal neurodegeneration, loss of hemispheric tissues, and enhanced memory as well as spatial learning after TBI.

Tire wear particles (TWP) are a prevalent form of microplastics (MPs) extensively distributed in the environment, raising concerns about their environmental behaviors and risks. However, knowledge regarding the properties and toxicity of these particles at environmentally relevant concentrations, specifically regarding the role of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) generated during TWP photoaging, remains limited. In this study, the evolution of EPFRs on TWP under different photoaging times and their adverse effects on Caenorhabditis elegans were systematically investigated. The photoaging process primarily resulted in the formation of EPFRs and reactive oxygen species (O2•−, ⋅OH, and 1O2), altering the physicochemical properties of TWP. The exposure of nematodes to 100 μg/L of TWP-50 (TWP with a photoaging time of 50 d) led to a significant decrease in locomotory behaviors (e.g., head thrashes, body bends, and wavelength) and neurotransmitter contents (e.g., dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin). Similarly, the expression of neurotransmission-related genes was reduced in nematodes exposed to TWP-50. Furthermore, the addition of free-radical inhibitors significantly suppressed TWP-induced neurotoxicity. Notably, correlation analysis revealed a significantly negative correlation between EPFRs levels and the locomotory behaviors and neurotransmitter contents of nematodes. Thus, it was concluded that EPFRs on photoaged TWP induce neurotoxicity by affecting neurotransmission. These findings elucidate the toxicity effects and mechanisms of EPFRs, emphasizing the importance of considering their contributions when evaluating the environmental risks associated with TWP.

Therapeutic progress in neurodegenerative conditions such as Parkinson's disease has been hampered by a lack of detailed knowledge of its molecular etiology. The advancements in genetics and genomics have provided fundamental insights into specific protein players and the cellular processes involved in the onset of disease. In this respect, the autophagy-lysosome system has emerged in recent years as a strong point of convergence for genetics, genomics, and pathologic indications, spanning both familial and idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Most, if not all, genes linked to familial disease are involved, in a regulatory capacity, in lysosome function (e.g., LRRK2, alpha-synuclein, VPS35, Parkin, and PINK1). Moreover, the majority of genomic loci associated with increased risk of idiopathic Parkinson's cluster in lysosome biology and regulation (GBA as the prime example). Lastly, neuropathologic evidence showed alterations in lysosome markers in autoptic material that, coupled to the alpha-synuclein proteinopathy that defines the disease, strongly indicate an alteration in functionality. In this Brief Review article, I present a personal perspective on the molecular and cellular involvement of lysosome biology in Parkinson's pathogenesis, aiming at a larger vision on the events underlying the onset of the disease. The attempts at targeting autophagy for therapeutic purposes in Parkinson's have been mostly aimed at “indiscriminately” enhancing its activity to promote the degradation and elimination of aggregate protein accumulations, such as alpha-synuclein Lewy bodies. However, this approach is based on the assumption that protein pathology is the root cause of disease, while pre-pathology and pre-degeneration dysfunctions have been largely observed in clinical and pre-clinical settings. In addition, it has been reported that unspecific boosting of autophagy can be detrimental. Thus, it is important to understand the mechanisms of specific autophagy forms and, even more, the adjustment of specific lysosome functionalities. Indeed, lysosomes exert fine signaling capacities in addition to their catabolic roles and might participate in the regulation of neuronal and glial cell functions. Here, I discuss hypotheses on these possible mechanisms, their links with etiologic and risk factors for Parkinson's disease, and how they could be targeted for disease-modifying purposes.

Vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT)-2 has a crucial role in the neurotransmission of biogenic amines. Recently, Dalton et al. , Pidathala et al. , Wu et al. , and Wang et al. individually reported cryo-electron microscopy (EM) structures of human VMAT2, offering opportunities for developing improved therapeutics and deep insights into the functioning of this protein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This literature review explores the pivotal roles of the Uncoordinated-13 (UNC13) protein family, encompassing UNC13A, UNC13B, UNC13C, and UNC13D, in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. These proteins, which are evolutionarily conserved and crucial for synaptic vesicle priming and exocytosis, have been implicated in a range of disorders, spanning from neurodegenerative diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) to immune-related conditions such as familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL). The involvement of UNC13A in neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity is linked to ALS and FTD, with genetic variations affecting disease progression. UNC13B, which is closely related to UNC13A, plays a role in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), epilepsy, and schizophrenia. UNC13C is implicated in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and has a neuroprotective role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). UNC13D has an essential role in immune cell function, making it a key player in FHL. This review highlights the distinct molecular functions of each UNC13 family member and their implications in disease contexts, shedding light on potential therapeutic strategies and avenues for future research. Understanding these proteins' roles offers new insights into the management and treatment of neurological and immunological disorders.

Abstract Nearly 5 decades ago, the effect of trigeminal nerve stimulation (TNS) on cerebral blood flow was observed for the first time. This implication directly led to further investigations and TNS’ success as a therapeutic intervention. Possessing unique connections with key brain and brainstem regions, TNS has been observed to modulate cerebral vasodilation, brain metabolism, cerebral autoregulation, cerebral and systemic inflammation, and the autonomic nervous system. The unique range of effects make it a prime therapeutic modality and have led to its clinical usage in chronic conditions such as migraine, prolonged disorders of consciousness, and depression. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of TNS research and its broader therapeutic potentialities. For the purpose of this review, PubMed and Google Scholar were searched from inception to August 28, 2023 to identify a total of 89 relevant studies, both clinical and pre-clinical. TNS harnesses the release of vasoactive neuropeptides, modulation of neurotransmission, and direct action upon the autonomic nervous system to generate a suite of powerful multitarget therapeutic effects. While TNS has been applied clinically to chronic pathological conditions, these powerful effects have recently shown great potential in a number of acute/traumatic pathologies. However, there are still key mechanistic and methodologic knowledge gaps to be solved to make TNS a viable therapeutic option in wider clinical settings. These include bimodal or paradoxical effects and mechanisms, questions regarding its safety in acute/traumatic conditions, the development of more selective stimulation methods to avoid potential maladaptive effects, and its connection to the diving reflex, a trigeminally-mediated protective endogenous reflex. The address of these questions could overcome the current limitations and allow TNS to be applied therapeutically to an innumerable number of pathologies, such that it now stands at the precipice of becoming a ground-breaking therapeutic modality.

Environmental pollutants have been linked to neurotoxicity and are proposed to contribute to neurodegenerative disorders. The zebrafish model provides a high-throughput platform for large-scale chemical screening and toxicity assessment and is widely accepted as an important animal model for the investigation of neurodegenerative disorders. Although recent studies explore the roles of environmental pollutants in neurodegenerative disorders in zebrafish models, current knowledge of the mechanisms of environmentally induced neurodegenerative disorders is relatively complex and overlapping. This review primarily discusses utilizing embryonic zebrafish as the model to investigate environmental pollutants-related neurodegenerative disease. We also review current applicable approaches and important biomarkers to unravel the underlying mechanism of environmentally related neurodegenerative disorders. We found embryonic zebrafish to be a powerful tool that provides a platform for evaluating neurotoxicity triggered by environmentally relevant concentrations of neurotoxic compounds. Additionally, using variable approaches to assess neurotoxicity in the embryonic zebrafish allows researchers to have insights into the complex interaction between environmental pollutants and neurodegenerative disorders and, ultimately, an understanding of the underlying mechanisms related to environmental toxicants.

The article discusses the unique neural organization of ctenophores, or comb jellies, and their distinct molecular and chemical signaling systems. The research suggests that ctenophores have independently developed neural systems and evolved synaptic organization. Ctenophore neurons are not homologous to neurons in other animals, and they use a different chemical language for intercellular communication. The article also highlights the structural uniqueness of ctenophore neural systems, including the presence of syncytial-type connectivity in some neuronal populations. Further research is needed to understand the cellular bases of ctenophore behaviors and the relationships between neuroid syncytia and chemical signaling. [Extracted from the article]

Nearly 5 decades ago, the effect of trigeminal nerve stimulation (TNS) on cerebral blood flow was observed for the first time. This implication directly led to further investigations and TNS' success as a therapeutic intervention. Possessing unique connections with key brain and brainstem regions, TNS has been observed to modulate cerebral vasodilation, brain metabolism, cerebral autoregulation, cerebral and systemic inflammation, and the autonomic nervous system. The unique range of effects make it a prime therapeutic modality and have led to its clinical usage in chronic conditions such as migraine, prolonged disorders of consciousness, and depression. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of TNS research and its broader therapeutic potentialities. For the purpose of this review, PubMed and Google Scholar were searched from inception to August 28, 2023 to identify a total of 89 relevant studies, both clinical and pre-clinical. TNS harnesses the release of vasoactive neuropeptides, modulation of neurotransmission, and direct action upon the autonomic nervous system to generate a suite of powerful multitarget therapeutic effects. While TNS has been applied clinically to chronic pathological conditions, these powerful effects have recently shown great potential in a number of acute/traumatic pathologies. However, there are still key mechanistic and methodologic knowledge gaps to be solved to make TNS a viable therapeutic option in wider clinical settings. These include bimodal or paradoxical effects and mechanisms, questions regarding its safety in acute/traumatic conditions, the development of more selective stimulation methods to avoid potential maladaptive effects, and its connection to the diving reflex, a trigeminally-mediated protective endogenous reflex. The address of these questions could overcome the current limitations and allow TNS to be applied therapeutically to an innumerable number of pathologies, such that it now stands at the precipice of becoming a ground-breaking therapeutic modality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cadmium is a heavy metal that increasingly contaminates food and drink products. Once ingested, cadmium exerts toxic effects that pose a significant threat to human health. The nervous system is particularly vulnerable to prolonged, low-dose cadmium exposure. This review article provides an overview of cadmium's primary mechanisms of neurotoxicity. Cadmium gains entry into the nervous system via zinc and calcium transporters, altering the homeostasis for these metal ions. Once within the nervous system, cadmium disrupts mitochondrial respiration by decreasing ATP synthesis and increasing the production of reactive oxygen species. Cadmium also impairs normal neurotransmission by increasing neurotransmitter release asynchronicity and disrupting neurotransmitter signaling proteins. Cadmium furthermore impairs the blood–brain barrier and alters the regulation of glycogen metabolism. Together, these mechanisms represent multiple sites of biochemical perturbation that result in cumulative nervous system damage which can increase the risk for neurological and neurodegenerative disorders. Understanding the way by which cadmium exerts its effects is critical for developing effective treatment and prevention strategies against cadmium-induced neurotoxic insult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fear conditioning constitutes the best and most reproducible paradigm to study the neurobiological mechanisms underlying emotions. On the other hand, studies on the synaptic plasticity phenomena underlying fear conditioning present neural circuits enforcing this learning pattern related to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Notably, in both humans and the rodent model, fear conditioning and context rely on dependent neurocircuitry in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus. In this review, an overview of the role that classical neurotransmitters play in the contextual conditioning model of fear, and therefore in PTSD, was reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]