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During the past two decades, the clinical use of biopharmaceutical products has markedly increased because of their obvious advantages over conventional small-molecule drug products. These advantages include better specificity, potency, targeting abilities, and reduced side effects. Despite the substantial clinical and commercial success, the macromolecular structure and intrinsic instability of biopharmaceuticals make their formulation and administration challenging and render parenteral delivery as the only viable option in most cases. The use of nanocarriers for efficient delivery of biopharmaceuticals is essential due to their practical benefits such as protecting from degradation in a hostile physiological environment, enhancing plasma half-life and retention time, facilitating absorption through the epithelium, providing site-specific delivery, and improving access to intracellular targets. In the current review, we highlight the clinical and commercial success of biopharmaceuticals and the overall applications and potential of nanocarriers in biopharmaceuticals delivery. Effective applications of nanocarriers for biopharmaceuticals delivery via invasive and noninvasive routes (oral, pulmonary, nasal, and skin) are presented here. The presented data undoubtedly demonstrate the great potential of combining nanocarriers with biopharmaceuticals to improve healthcare products in the future clinical landscape. In conclusion, nanocarriers are promising delivery tool for the hormones, cytokines, nucleic acids, vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, and gene- and cell-based therapeutics for the treatment of multiple pathological conditions.

Introduction: Age estimation in adults is advantageous in forensic odontology. With increase in age, dental pulp volume gets reduced due to secondary dentine formation. Kvaal et al. formulated a method for chronological age estimation based on pulp size by periapical dental radiographs. Aim and objective: Testing the Kvaal's method for chronological age estimation in Indian population using patients' intraoral periapical radiographs of maxillary canine. Materials and methods: This study included total of 100 subjects out of which 48 were females and 52 were males of age group 21-70 years. The ratios A1, A2, A3, A4 were calculated - pulp to root length, pulp to tooth length, tooth to root length, pulp to root width at three different levels respectively to avoid any discrepancy in magnification and angulation of x-ray. Measurements were done using Kvaal's method and was analyzed for regression analysis and regression equations were obtained and checked for the results. Results: PCC indicated that among the ratiosA1, A2, A4 were less statistically significant compared toA3 which was more significant individually. Conclusion: Ratio A3 is a good indicator and thus linear regression was derived by this variable and all variables together as well. A1, A2, A4 were not good indicators individually for age estimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]