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SUMMARY: 'Unavoidable pollutants', 'natural poisons', 'invisible thieves', and 'silent killers' are the popular names of a group of fundal metabolites, mycotoxins, and the disease caused by these toxins is referred to as mycotoxicosis. In poultry, this disease usually occurs when mycotoxins-producing fungi grow on grain and feed. Although more than 500 different mycotoxins have been identified, scientists have focussed only on mycotoxins of medical and agricultural concern, which are found to be toxic. The pathogenesis and therapeutics of mycotoxicosis in poultry production remain essential challenges. Oxidative stress is a driving force in the pathogenesis of mycotoxicosis. Oxidative stress induces cellular and nuclear damage and mitochondrial dysfunction through the overproduction of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. Furthermore, mycotoxins induce ribosomal stress that activates multiple cellular pathways, such as nuclear transcription factor κβ and mitogen-activated protein kinase. Activation of these aberrant cellular signalling pathways and oxidative stress triggers a cascade of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which contributes to apoptosis and tissue/organ dysfunction, such as immunosuppression, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and gastrointestinal tract toxicity. The consequences of this toxicity lead to poor feed conversion, feed refusal, poor growth rate, reduced fertility, and reduced hatchability of poultry. Therefore, optimally, a better understanding of the disease pathogenesis and oxidative stress is needed to identify specific and targeted therapeutic approaches to combat mycotoxicosis in poultry. This review describes the pathogenesis of mycotoxicosis with particular emphasis on oxidative stress in poultry. This also paves the way for preventive and therapeutic approaches aimed at limiting oxidative stress that can enhance growth, fertility, and production in poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Degnala is a neglected disease affecting water buffaloes, characterized by dermatological and systemic symptoms that significantly impact animal health and productivity. Caused primarily by mycotoxins produced by fungi in damp, poorly stored feed, Degnala manifests through symptoms such as skin lesions, lameness, and weight loss, leading to severe economic losses in affected regions. Despite its prevalence in certain areas, Degnala remains underreported and understudied, partly due to inadequate diagnostic facilities and a lack of awareness among veterinarians and farmers. This review aims to shed light on Degnala, its etiology, clinical manifestations, and the challenges faced in its diagnosis and management. Furthermore, this review discusses the current understanding of the disease, highlighting research gaps and the need for improved diagnostic methods. It also emphasizes the importance of proper feed management and storage practices to prevent mycotoxin contamination. By bringing attention to this neglected disease, this review calls for increased research efforts, better diagnostic protocols, and enhanced awareness to mitigate the impact of Degnala on buffalo health and productivity. Addressing these challenges is crucial for improving animal welfare and supporting the livelihoods of farmers who rely on buffaloes for milk, meat, and draught power. Degnala is one of the primary mycotoxicoses affecting buffaloes, with Fusarium spp. as the main causative agent. This disease is strongly associated with the feeding of rice straw to buffaloes and is considered endemic to regions where rice is cultivated. Cases are concentrated in winter when conditions favor fungal growth in inadequately stored straw. Degnala is characterized by necrosis and gangrene of the extremities, including the tail, lower limbs, ears, tongue, muzzle, and teats. The pelvic limbs are more affected than the thoracic limbs. A tortuous appearance of the tail is very common, and cracks or corneal loss of the hooves may occur, exposing the blades and even the bones. There is no diagnostic method for identifying the disease in animals other than clinical and epidemiological criteria, combined with fungal culture samples. There is no treatment that neutralizes the effects of the toxins; the current treatment is palliative and supportive, consisting of pentasulfate solution, anti-Degnala liquid, 2% nitroglycerin ointment, and broad-spectrum antibiotics for secondary infections. Additionally, the management of drying and proper storage of straw is essential for controlling this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Degnala is one of the primary mycotoxicoses affecting buffaloes, with Fusarium spp. as the main causative agent. This disease is strongly associated with the feeding of rice straw to buffaloes and is considered endemic to regions where rice is cultivated. Cases are concentrated in winter when conditions favor fungal growth in inadequately stored straw. Degnala is characterized by necrosis and gangrene of the extremities, including the tail, lower limbs, ears, tongue, muzzle, and teats. The pelvic limbs are more affected than the thoracic limbs. A tortuous appearance of the tail is very common, and cracks or corneal loss of the hooves may occur, exposing the blades and even the bones. There is no diagnostic method for identifying the disease in animals other than clinical and epidemiological criteria, combined with fungal culture samples. There is no treatment that neutralizes the effects of the toxins; the current treatment is palliative and supportive, consisting of pentasulfate solution, anti-Degnala liquid, 2% nitroglycerin ointment, and broad-spectrum antibiotics for secondary infections. Additionally, the management of drying and proper storage of straw is essential for controlling this disease.

Mycotoxins in dairy cows can cause many non-specific symptoms often resulting from immune system overreaction. The study assessed the concentration of selected cytokines and acute phase proteins (APP) in cows with natural mycotoxicosis before and after using a mycotoxin neutraliser. The cytokines were tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 10 (IL-10), and the APP were serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp).

Mycotoxins can accumulate in raw materials of plant origin at different technological stages of its production. Most often, the producers of mycotoxins are fungi of the genera Aspergillus , Fusarium , Penicillium and some others. The clinical symptoms of mycotoxicoses vary significantly, and lethal outcomes are possible. For this reason, the mycotoxicological study of various types of feed under production conditions is an indispensable component of veterinary support of industrial animal husbandry. As part of this study, a retrospective analysis of the results of a mycotoxicological study of feed for different animal species was carried out in the Omsk region in 2017-2021. All feeds received by the Omsk Regional Veterinary Laboratory for 5 years for the determination of mycotoxins were examined for the presence of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, aflatoxin B 1, deoxynivalenol. It was established that almost 70 % of the studied samples contained mycotoxins, including their maximum allowable level was exceeded in 74 samples. Exceeding the permissible levels was noted for the content of T-2 toxin (34 samples), zearalenone (27 samples), ochratoxin A (6 samples), aflatoxin B 1 (4 samples) and deoxynivalenol (3 samples). The largest number of cases of contamination was recorded in the study of feed and feed mixtures. The greatest danger is the multiple contamination of feed with mycotoxins. This increases the risk of developing comorbid conditions and the spread of opportunistic infections.

The issue of cattle reproduction was and still is one of the main tasks in cattle breeding. Losses of farms from infertility of cows are quite significant and range within 3.19-5.41 per 1 day of infertility. Mycotoxins produced by fungi of the Fusarium family, namely deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) adversely affect not only the functioning of all organs and systems of the cow’s body, but also produce an immunosedative effect. The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of the DON and ZEN complex on the main indicators of the immune response of cows and its correction in a comparative aspect using a feed additive based on zeolite and organic acids and recombinant α-, g-interferons. The study material was the blood of cows (serum and stabilized) sick with mycotoxicosis caused by the association of DON and ZEN. Methods used: photonephelometric using E. coli test culture, spontaneous rosette formation with sheep red blood cells according to M. Jondal, modified method of rosette formation according to M. Wansbrough-Jones, R. Limatibul’s method, simple radial immunodiffusion in gel according to G. Mancini, precipitation in a polyethylene glycol solution according to M. Digeon. Experimental studies were performed on black-spotted cows in farms of the Sumy Oblast. The dynamics of the immune indicators of cows during the development of mycotoxicosis and upon treatment with products zeolite-based, organic acids, and an aqueous solution of recombinant α-, g-interferons were studied. It was found that the indicator of bactericidal, lysozyme, complementary, and phagocytic activity of cow blood serum under treatment increased to the indicator inherent in healthy animals. The dynamics of immunoglobulins in the treatment with zeolite and organic acids and recombinant α-, g-interferons was investigated, and an increase to the level of intact cows was established. It was proved that the indicators of the immune response of cows upon using a feed additive based on zeolite and organic acids at a dose of 2.5 kg per tonne of fodder and a preparation based on an aqueous solution of recombinant α-, g-interferons at a dose of 3 ml per animal were significantly higher

With high frequency amongst the population, clinical polymorphism and their great contagiousness, mycotic diseases represent an important chapter of medical pathology and a public health problem. Out of the over 100,000 species of existing microscopic fungi, about one hundred are pathogenic to humans. From a medical point of view, the fungi are grouped into: dermatophytes, levuriform yeasts or fungi, dimorphic fungi (in vivo lesion form, in vitro filamentous form), opportunistic fungi (pathogens under certain circumstances), actinomycetes (filamentous gram positive bacteri, which produce pseudomycoses). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Aflatoxins (AFs) are potent toxic metabolites produced from Aspergillus species. Whose existence in poultry ration leads to drastic economic losses, notably in duck, as the most susceptible poultry species. This study aimed to determine tissue residues of AFs, alterations in selected clinical chemistry variables in serum, mainly during the exposure period, and lycopene and silymarin's possible roles as herbal treatments against aflatoxicosis in Pekin duckling. Materials and Methods: The study used one hundred and twenty one-day-old Pekin ducklings and classified them into four groups comprising 30 ducklings in each group. The control group (G1) ducklings were fed a mycotoxin-free ration, and G2 received a naturally contaminated ration with 30 ppb of AFs. G3 and G4 consumed contaminated rations with AFs with 30 ppb for 2 weeks and were treated with lycopene 100 mg/kg or silymarin 600 mg/kg/food, respectively, for 10 days. Serum activities of alanine transaminase and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamyl transferase, ALP, total protein and albumin creatinine and uric acid concentrations, oxidant/antioxidant parameters (malondialdehyde [MDA], total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and catalase [CAT]), and hepatic AFs residue were determined. Lycopene and silymarin were used for the treatment of aflatoxicosis for another 10 days. Results: Hepatic and kidney parameters were elevated in the AFs intoxicated group and reduced in the lycopene- and silymarin-treated groups. They had elevated MDA and AFs residues with decreased antioxidant parameters (TAC, GST, and CAT) in the AFs group. At the same time, treatment with lycopene or silymarin had reversed the action of AFs on MDA, elevated the hepatic residue, and improved antioxidant activity. Conclusion: Lycopene and silymarin, with their potent antioxidant activity, can be used to reverse the harmful effects of AFs on hepatic and kidney tissue.

Mycotoxins are well established toxic metabolic entities produced when fungi invade agricultural/farm produce, and this happens especially when the conditions are favourable. Exposure to mycotoxins can directly take place via the consumption of infected foods and feeds; humans can also be indirectly exposed from consuming animals fed with infected feeds. Among the hundreds of mycotoxins known to humans, around a handful have drawn the most concern because of their occurrence in food and severe effects on human health. The increasing public health importance of mycotoxins across human and livestock environments mandates the continued review of the relevant literature, especially with regard to understanding their toxicological mechanisms. In particular, our analysis of recently conducted reviews showed that the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins deserve additional attention to help provide enhanced understanding regarding this subject matter. For this reason, this current work reviewed the mycotoxins' toxicological mechanisms involving humans, livestock, and their associated health concerns. In particular, we have deepened our understanding about how the mycotoxins' toxicological mechanisms impact on the human cellular genome. Along with the significance of mycotoxin toxicities and their toxicological mechanisms, there are associated health concerns arising from exposures to these toxins, including DNA damage, kidney damage, DNA/RNA mutations, growth impairment in children, gene modifications, and immune impairment. More needs to be done to enhance the understanding regards the mechanisms underscoring the environmental implications of mycotoxins, which can be actualized via risk assessment studies into the conditions/factors facilitating mycotoxins' toxicities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxicobiological eff ect of mycotoxins association of the Penicillium and Fusarium fungus (T-2 toxin at a concentration of 0.1 mg/kg, fumonisin B1 ‒ 0.5 mg/kg, vomitoxin (DON) ‒ 0.1 mg/kg, penicillic acid ‒ 1 mg/kg) was accompanied by the development of a complex pathological process in weaned piglets. In this regard, the detoxifi cation and sorption capacity of the complex feed additive "Harufi x+" based on mannanoligosaccharides was studied. The additive eff ect on the resorptive activity of mineral and vitamin nutrients of feed under the normal feeding conditions and in case of contamination with mycotoxins has been studied. The use of enterosorbent off set the toxic eff ects of micromycete metabolites, which contributed to the growth of piglets. Thus, weight growth rate increase of the piglets in group 1 (i.e., those whose diet included the additive, unlike the diet of the animals in control group) constituted 16 %, while their average weight growth rate was high and constituted 1.96 kg per day. In addition, during the study of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, ferum, zinc, copper and manganese in the piglets blood was not found excretion of these elements with a sorbent, moreover, noted the normalization their blood level. The study content of vitamins A and E, the same as with mineral nutrients, has not been established decrease during treatment with study the pharmaceutical. The obtained results testify the active absorption in the gastrointestinal tract of the vitamin components within the fodder combined with fodder additive “Harufi x+” and high biological accessibility of its transport forms. The effi ciency of the additive can be explained by its composition, namely the complex of mineral and organic components that are formed by modifi cation of the organic cations of the mineral surface.

Mycotoxicosis is a severe challenge in the aquafeed industry and is involved in low productivity and high economic loss. On this occasion, available dietary supplements, including probiotics, may relieve the impacts of mycotoxicosis on the performances of aquatic animals. In this study, four test diets were prepared to test the effects of Bacillus subtilis (BS), ochratoxin A (OTA), and their mixture (BS/OTA) on the performances of Mullet (Liza ramada). Fish of similar initial weight (11.38 ± 0.24 g) were divided into four groups stocked in triplicate hapas (0.5 ×0.5 ×1 m) at 15 fish per hapa. Fish fed the control diet (without BS or OTA), BS (2 × 106 CFU/g), OTA (1 mg/kg) or BS (2 × 106 CFU/g) and OTA (1 mg/kg) (BS/OTA). After eight weeks, the final weight (FBW) and specific growth rate (SGR) were markedly enhanced by dietary BS and reduced by OTA contamination, while the feed conversion ratio (FCR) was meaningfully reduced by dietary BS and increased by OTA. The hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cells (RBCs), and white blood cells (WBCs) were markedly lowered by OTA toxicity. Fish fed BS, or BS/OTA diets showed no significant differences with the control in terms of Hb, PCV, RBCs, and WBCs (p ˃ 0.05). The BS-fed fish showed the same normal intestinal and liver structure with an improved appearance of intestinal villi. The OTA-exposed fish showed deterioration of intestinal mucosa and stunted growth of intestinal villi with severe liver vascular dilatation and congestion in addition to hepatocytes degeneration. The combination of BS with OTA alleviated the pathological effect of individual OTA on the intestinal villi, improved intestinal morphology, and restored the normal hepatic structures with mild periductal inflammatory reaction around the bile duct. The blood total protein and albumin levels were markedly increased by dietary BS and lowered by OTA. Fish fed BS/OTA diet had higher alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and urea than fish fed the control but lower than those contaminated with OTA. The catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were markedly increased by dietary BS and lowered by OTA toxicity. However, the malondialdehyde (MDA) level was decreased by dietary BS and increased by OTA toxicity. Interestingly, fish fed the control and BS/OTA diet had similar FBW, SGR, FCR, survival rates, Hb, PCV, RBCs, WBCs, creatinine, CAT, GPx, SOD, and MDA levels. In conclusion, dietary B. subtilis relieved the negative impacts of OTA contamination via protecting fish's intestine, liver, and kidney function.

Mycotoxicosis, a group of diseases caused by the ingestion of toxic metabolites produced by fungi, is a significant concern in the poultry industry. Among the various mycotoxins, aflatoxins pose a significant threat to poultry health and productivity. This article discusses the etiology, occurrence, toxicology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, prevention, and control strategies related to aflatoxicosis in poultry. Additionally, this article highlights the economic implications and future research directions to mitigate the impact of aflatoxicosis on poultry production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Hungary and Tanzania's climatic, soil, and technological conditions differ significantly in crop production, cereals crop cultivation is of paramount importance; maize crop dominates the cultivated area (Hungary 1 million ha, Tanzania 3 million ha) both from a feed and food point of view. Unfortunately, in both countries, fungal species (Fusaria, Aspergilli, Penicillia, etc.) that produce various mycotoxins on cereals, including maize grains, are a growing concern. The situation is complicated because these fungal species and their toxins can appear not only on cereals but also on other crops. Despite the prevalence of mycotoxins in both countries, studies show higher exposure risks and contamination above tolerable levels for human consumption in Tanzania to Hungary, with Tanzania observing acute aflatoxicosi s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi are a large group of eukaryotic microorganisms that can readily adapt to diverse environments and occur in almost all climatic zones and continents. Although some fungi are inevitable in the environment for the decay and recycling of organic material, many species are known to produce secondary metabolites, and these mycotoxins, when ingested with food or feed materials, can adversely affect animal and human health. Among the toxigenic fungi, Fusarium species are recognized as so-called field fungi, invading crops and producing mycotoxins predominantly before harvest. Fusarium produces a wide array of mycotoxins, causing different plant diseases. Fusariosis causes significant economic losses in a wide range of crops. Fusarium secondary metabolites, particularly trichothecenes, are potent toxins in mammalian species and cause diverse adverse effects in humans and animals. Other prominent Fusarium toxins with entirely different chemical structures are zearalenone and its derivatives and fumonisins. With an entirely different life cycle, toxins of endophytes belonging to the genus Epichloë and Neothyphodium coenophialum and Neothyphodium lolii comprise an animal health risk, particularly for grazing animals. This review aimed to summarize the adverse effects of selected Fusarium and Epichloë toxins, with a special emphasis on their occurrence in roughages and their mechanisms of action, and describe their effect on animal health and welfare and the potentially related public health risks., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2024 The Author(s). Published by IMR Press.)

Background and Aim: Aflatoxins (AFs) are potent toxic metabolites produced from Aspergillus species. Whose existence in poultry ration leads to drastic economic losses, notably in duck, as the most susceptible poultry species. This study aimed to determine tissue residues of AFs, alterations in selected clinical chemistry variables in serum, mainly during the exposure period, and lycopene and silymarin's possible roles as herbal treatments against aflatoxicosis in Pekin duckling. Materials and Methods: The study used one hundred and twenty one-day-old Pekin ducklings and classified them into four groups comprising 30 ducklings in each group. The control group (G1) ducklings were fed a mycotoxin-free ration, and G2 received a naturally contaminated ration with 30 ppb of AFs. G3 and G4 consumed contaminated rations with AFs with 30 ppb for 2 weeks and were treated with lycopene 100 mg/kg or silymarin 600 mg/kg/food, respectively, for 10 days. Serum activities of alanine transaminase and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamyl transferase, ALP, total protein and albumin creatinine and uric acid concentrations, oxidant/antioxidant parameters (malondialdehyde [MDA], total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and catalase [CAT]), and hepatic AFs residue were determined. Lycopene and silymarin were used for the treatment of aflatoxicosis for another 10 days. Results: Hepatic and kidney parameters were elevated in the AFs intoxicated group and reduced in the lycopene- and silymarin-treated groups. They had elevated MDA and AFs residues with decreased antioxidant parameters (TAC, GST, and CAT) in the AFs group. At the same time, treatment with lycopene or silymarin had reversed the action of AFs on MDA, elevated the hepatic residue, and improved antioxidant activity. Conclusion: Lycopene and silymarin, with their potent antioxidant activity, can be used to reverse the harmful effects of AFs on hepatic and kidney tissue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are well established toxic metabolic entities produced when fungi invade agricultural/farm produce, and this happens especially when the conditions are favourable. Exposure to mycotoxins can directly take place via the consumption of infected foods and feeds; humans can also be indirectly exposed from consuming animals fed with infected feeds. Among the hundreds of mycotoxins known to humans, around a handful have drawn the most concern because of their occurrence in food and severe effects on human health. The increasing public health importance of mycotoxins across human and livestock environments mandates the continued review of the relevant literature, especially with regard to understanding their toxicological mechanisms. In particular, our analysis of recently conducted reviews showed that the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins deserve additional attention to help provide enhanced understanding regarding this subject matter. For this reason, this current work reviewed the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms involving humans, livestock, and their associated health concerns. In particular, we have deepened our understanding about how the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms impact on the human cellular genome. Along with the significance of mycotoxin toxicities and their toxicological mechanisms, there are associated health concerns arising from exposures to these toxins, including DNA damage, kidney damage, DNA/RNA mutations, growth impairment in children, gene modifications, and immune impairment. More needs to be done to enhance the understanding regards the mechanisms underscoring the environmental implications of mycotoxins, which can be actualized via risk assessment studies into the conditions/factors facilitating mycotoxins’ toxicities.

The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of on-farm risk factors and health effects associated with contamination of dairy feeds with aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes (T-2), deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisins (FB) in Jordan. A pre-tested and validated questionnaire was used to determine on-farm practices and health effects associated with high levels of mycotoxins. A total of 88 feed samples were collected from the 37 farms participating in the study and analyzed using commercially available ELISA kits. The mean total AF concentration exceeded the European Union (EU) limit in alfalfa (4%) and total mixed ration (TMR) (3%) samples. Similarly, levels exceeding EU limits were observed for T-2 in alfalfa (29%), TMR (30%), and corn silage (4%). The average concentrations of ZEN and FB were 300 ppb and 11,638 ppb, respectively, which were below the EU maximum limits in all feed samples examined. Intensive management system (OR = 7.70), imported feed (OR = 3.40), feed storage on the farm for more than 1-month duration (OR = 7.90), and not using antitoxins (OR = 2.30) were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with high levels of mycotoxins in feed samples. A significant correlation (P < 0.05) was evident between the presence of mycotoxins in dairy feed and feed refusal (R = 0.70), low milk production (R = 0.50), diarrhea problems (R = 0.60), infertility (R = 0.50), and repeated breeder problems (R = 0.80). Results show that mycotoxin contamination in dairy feeds is a problem in Jordan, and appropriate measures need to be undertaken to reduce risks to human and animal health and improve production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins pose severe health hazards in animals, humans, and poultry birds. More than 400 chemically different mycotoxins have been identified to date. Twenty-five percent of world's crops are potentially contaminated with mycotoxins. Luckily, nature has provided the ruminants a unique property of inactivating and detoxifying most of the mycotoxins with the help of microflora and microfauna present within their ruminal fluid; however, unfortunately avian species lack such ability putting them at high risk to the deleterious effects of mycotoxins. This review elaborates different strategies for diagnosis, prevention and control of mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Molds and mycotoxins are contaminants of animal feed causing spoilage and clinical intoxication. Animal exposure to mycotoxins reflects diet composition with major differences occurring between animals kept predominantly of pastures, i.e. ruminants and horses, and those consuming formulated feed like pigs and poultry. Mixed feeds are composed of several ingredients, often sourced from different continents. Subsequently, practitioners may confront endemic diseases and signs of toxin exposure related to toxins imported accidentally with contaminated feed materials from other countries and continents. Mycotoxins comprise more than 300 to 400 different chemicals causing a variety of clinical symptoms. Mycotoxin exposure causes major economic losses due to reduced performance, impaired feed conversion and fertility, and increased susceptibility to environmental stress and infectious diseases. In acute cases, clinical symptoms following mycotoxin ingestion are often non-specific, hindering an immediate diagnosis. Furthermore, most mold species produce more than one toxin, and feed commodities are regularly contaminated with various mold species resulting in complex mixtures of toxins in formulated feeds. The effects of these different toxins may be additive, depending on the level and time of exposure, and the intensity of the clinical symptoms based on age, health, and nutritional status of the exposed animal(s). Threshold levels of toxicity are difficult to define and discrepancies between analytical data and clinical symptoms are common in daily practice. This review aims to provide an overview of Aspergillus and Penicillium toxins that are frequently found in feed commodities and discusses their effects on animal health and productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

Abstract The mycotoxigenic phytopathogenic fungus such as Fusarium moniliforme contamination in maize kernels may not only affect seed germination but also negatively cause mycotoxicosis in animals and humans. There is no effective fungicides to control the growth of F. moniliforme on maize kernels. Hence, effective bioactive compounds are needed to prevent plant and animal diseases associated with F. moniliforme contamination in cereals. Surfactin is an well-known antimicrobial lipopeptide has strong antifungal activities against several phytopathogenic fungi and may have potential uses in agriculture. So, in this present study the antifungal activity of surfactin extracted from Brevibacillus brevis KN8(2) was investigated against F. moniliforme , further its impact in seed germination and mycotoxicosis was also studied. Our results showed that surfactin inhibited and damaged the hyphae of F. moniliforme in in vitro. The agarose gel electrophoresis, SDS-PAGE analysis and biochemical assay presented that surfactin damaged the DNA, protein and reduced the GSH content in F. moniliforme. Furthermore, surfactin prevent maize seed germination problem and mycotoxicosis in animal model associated with F. moniliforme via prevention of F. moniliforme contamination on maize kernels. These findings revealed that surfactin could be an effective bio-fungicide in the plant disease management. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Surfactin inhibit the growth of Fusarium moniliforme in both in vitro and in vivo. • Surfactin prevent mycotoxigenic phytopathogenic fungi contamination on maize kernels. • Surfactin prevents F. moniliforme associated plant and animal diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based ingredients have been successfully replacing fishmeal in finished fish feeds. However, using crops in feeds results in an increased risk of contamination by fungi and mycotoxins and a higher incidence of mycotoxicosis in fish. This might decrease aquaculture’s productivity as mycotoxicosis generally result in decreased body weight, growth impairment and higher rates of disease and mortality in fish. Additionally, some mycotoxins might accumulate in the fish musculature. As such, fish consumption might become another way for mycotoxins to enter the human food chain, threatening food security and public health as mycotoxins are important genotoxins, carcinogens and immunosuppressors to humans. In this work we aim to provide a review on the most important mycotoxins found in crops and in finished fish feed, i.e., aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes and zearalenone. We present their effects on the health of fish and humans and their regulations in the European Union. Although work has been performed in mycotoxin research ever since the 1960s, a lot of information is still lacking regarding its effects. However, it is noticed that in order to use crops in aquafeed production, efforts should be made in order to monitor its contamination by mycotoxinogenic fungi and mycotoxins.

AbstractObjective: The purpose of this study is to report the use of intravenous lipid emulsion (ILE) in dogs presenting with suspected tremorgenic mycotoxicosis based on signs of intoxication and known ingestion of mouldy food or compost.Background: ILE is being used for toxicoses associated with fat soluble agents. As tremorgenic mycotoxins are lipophilic in nature, the use of ILE may be of benefit in these patients. Methods: Medical records of all dogs examined at any Vets Now clinic between November 2012 and November 2016, in which ILE had been used, were reviewed and 53 cases were included in the study.Results: In 96% of cases there was clinical improvement recorded post ILE administration within a median time of 4 hours. No adverse effects were seen during the infusion or up to the time of discharge.Conclusion: The administration of ILE seems to be associated with a beneficial effect in the short term in dogs. Prospective evaluation of this therapy is warranted to further evaluate the use of ILE in these cases.

Out of the various mycotoxigenic food and feed contaminant, the fungal species belonging to Penicillium genera, particularly Penicillium roqueforti is of great economic importance, and well known for its crucial role in the manufacturing of Roquefort and Gorgonzola cheese. The mycotoxicosis effect of this mold is due to secretion of several metabolites, of which PR toxin is of considerable importance, with regard to food quality and safety challenges issues. The food products and silages enriched with PR toxin could lead into damage to vital internal organs, gastrointestinal perturbations, carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, necrosis, and enzyme inhibition. Moreover, it also has the significant mutagenic potential to disrupt/alter the crucial processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation at the molecular level. The high genetic diversities in between the various strains of P. roqueforti persuaded their nominations with Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), accordingly to the cheese type, they have been employed. Recently, the biosynthetic mechanism and toxicogenetic studies unraveled the role of ari1 and prx gene clusters that cross-talk with the synthesis of other metabolites or involve other cross-regulatory pathways to negatively regulate/inhibit the other biosynthetic route targeted for production of a strain-specific metabolites. Interestingly, the chemical conversion that imparts toxic properties to PR toxin is the substitution/oxidation of functional hydroxyl group (-OH) to aldehyde group (-CHO). The rapid conversion of PR toxin to the other derivatives such as PR imine, PR amide, and PR acid, based on conditions available reflects their unstability and degradative aspects. Since the PR toxin-induced toxicity could not be eliminated safely, the assessment of dose-response and other pharmacological aspects for its safe consumption is indispensable. The present review describes the natural occurrences, diversity, biosynthesis, genetics, toxicological aspects, control and prevention strategies, and other management aspects of PR toxin with paying special attention on economic impacts with intended legislations for avoiding PR toxin contamination with respect to food security and other biosafety purposes.

The secondary metabolites produced by fungi known as mycotoxins, are capable of causing mycotoxicosis (diseases and death) in human and animals. Contamination of feedstuffs as well as food commodities by fungi occurs frequently in a natural manner and is accompanied by the presence of mycotoxins. The occurrence of mycotoxins' contamination is further stimulated by the on-going global warming as reflected in some findings. This review comprehensively discussed the role of mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxins, and aflatoxins) toward gut health and gut microbiota. Certainly, mycotoxins cause perturbation in the gut, particularly in the intestinal epithelial. Recent insights have generated an entirely new perspective where there is a bi-directional relationship exists between mycotoxins and gut microbiota, thus suggesting that our gut microbiota might be involved in the development of mycotoxicosis. The bacteria–xenobiotic interplay for the host is highlighted in this review article. It is now well established that a healthy gut microbiota is largely responsible for the overall health of the host. Findings revealed that the gut microbiota is capable of eliminating mycotoxin from the host naturally, provided that the host is healthy with a balance gut microbiota. Moreover, mycotoxins have been demonstrated for modulation of gut microbiota composition, and such alteration in gut microbiota can be observed up to species level in some of the studies. Most, if not all, of the reported effects of mycotoxins, are negative in terms of intestinal health, where beneficial bacteria are eliminated accompanied by an increase of the gut pathogen. The interactions between gut microbiota and mycotoxins have a significant role in the development of mycotoxicosis, particularly hepatocellular carcinoma. Such knowledge potentially drives the development of novel and innovative strategies for the prevention and therapy of mycotoxin contamination and mycotoxicosis.

Out of the various mycotoxigenic food and feed contaminant, the fungal species belonging to Penicillium genera, particularly Penicillium roqueforti is of great economic importance, and well known for its crucial role in the manufacturing of Roquefort and Gorgonzola cheese. The mycotoxicosis effect of this mold is due to secretion of several metabolites, of which PR toxin is of considerable importance, with regard to food quality and safety challenges issues. The food products and silages enriched with PR toxin could lead into damage to vital internal organs, gastrointestinal perturbations, carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, necrosis, and enzyme inhibition. Moreover, it also has the significant mutagenic potential to disrupt/alter the crucial processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation at the molecular level. The high genetic diversities in between the various strains of P. roqueforti persuaded their nominations with Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), accordingly to the cheese type, they have been employed. Recently, the biosynthetic mechanism and toxicogenetic studies unraveled the role of ari1 and prx gene clusters that cross-talk with the synthesis of other metabolites or involve other cross-regulatory pathways to negatively regulate/inhibit the other biosynthetic route targeted for production of a strain-specific metabolites. Interestingly, the chemical conversion that imparts toxic properties to PR toxin is the substitution/oxidation of functional hydroxyl group (ô€€€OH) to aldehyde group (ô€€€CHO). The rapid conversion of PR toxin to the other derivatives such as PR imine, PR amide, and PR acid, based on conditions available reflects their unstability and degradative aspects. Since the PR toxin-induced toxicity could not be eliminated safely, the assessment of dose-response and other pharmacological aspects for its safe consumption is indispensable. The present review describes the natural occurrences, diversity, biosynthesis, genetics, toxicological aspects, control and prevention strategies, and other management aspects of PR toxin with paying special attention on economic impacts with intended legislations for avoiding PR toxin contamination with respect to food security and other biosafety purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The objective of the study was to determine the effect of exposure of pigs to the Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON), administered together and separately, on the colon microbiota. An experiment was conducted for 42 days on gilts, randomly assigned to four groups and administered either ZEN, DON, ZEN+DON, or a placebo. The number of aerobic mesophilic bacteria, yeasts, molds, anaerobic Clostridium perfringens, fecal streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia coli, and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were determined in the contents of the ascending colon. The influence of mycotoxins on the functional diversity of the colonic microbiota was assessed using EcoPlate tests (Biolog). Analysis revealed the predominance of LAB in all groups of pigs. Zearalenone, administered separately and together with DON, was found to have an adverse effect on mesophilic aerobic bacteria, but only after long exposure to this mycotoxin. During the six weeks of the experiment, the concentration of C. perfringens, E. coli, and other bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae was most considerably reduced in the experimental groups exposed to zearalenone, both separately and together with DON. Mycotoxins also affected the functional biodiversity of microorganisms. Both Shannon’s diversity index and the number of catabolized substrates in Biolog plate (the R index) were much higher in the group subjected to mixed mycotoxicosis.

Deoxynivalenol is also known as vomitoxin due to its impact on livestock through interference with animal growth and acceptance of feed. At the molecular level, deoxynivalenol disrupts normal cell function by inhibiting protein synthesis via binding to the ribosome and by activating critical cellular kinases involved in signal transduction related to proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Because of concerns related to deoxynivalenol, the United States FDA has instituted advisory levels of 5 µg/g for grain products for most animal feeds and 10 µg/g for grain products for cattle feed. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of low doses of deoxynivalenol applied per os on the presence of this mycotoxin in selected tissues of the alimentary canal of gilts. The study was performed on 39 animals divided into two groups (control, C; n = 21 and experimental, E; n = 18), of 20 kg body weight at the beginning of the experiment. Gilts received the toxin in doses of 12 µg/kg b.w./day (experimental group) or placebo (control group) over a period of 42 days. Three animals from two experimental groups were sacrificed on days 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42, excluding day 1 when only three control group animals were scarified. Tissues samples were prepared for high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses with the application of solid phase extraction (SPE). The results show that deoxynivalenol doses used in our study, even when applied for a short period, resulted in its presence in gastrointestinal tissues. The highest concentrations of deoxynivalenol reported in small intestine samples ranged from 7.2 (in the duodenum) to 18.6 ng/g (in the ileum) and in large intestine samples from 1.8 (in transverse the colon) to 23.0 ng/g (in the caecum). In liver tissues, the deoxynivalenol contents ranged from 6.7 to 8.8 ng/g.

Bovine mycotoxicosis is a disorder caused by the ingestion of fungal toxins. It is associated with chronic signs, such as reduced growth rate and milk yield, and causes significant economic cost to the dairy industry. The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are commonly found in grain fed to cattle. Patulin (PA) is a common grass silage contaminant but is also found in grain. The effects of these mycotoxins on cellular function at low concentrations are not well understood. Using Madin−Darby bovine kidney cells we evaluated the cellular response to these mycotoxins, measuring cytotoxicity, de novo protein synthesis, cell proliferation, cell cycle analysis, and also metabolic profiling by 1H NMR spectroscopy. DON, ZEN, and PA induced cytotoxicity, and PA and FB1 induced a decrease in metabolic activity in surviving cells. DON was the only mycotoxin found to have a significant effect on the metabolic profile, with exposed cells showing increased cellular amino acids, lactate, 2-oxoglutarate, 3-hydroxybutyrate, and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and decreased β-alanine, choline, creatine, taurine, and myo-inositol. Cells exposed to DON also showed reductions in protein synthesis. DON has previously been documented as being a ribotoxin; the results here suggest that exposure of bovine cells to DON causes a decrease in protein synthesis with corresponding cellular accumulation of precursors. Cell proliferation was also arrested without causing apoptosis. It is likely that exposure triggers hypoxic, hypertonic, and ribotoxic responses in bovine cells, and that these responses contribute to reduced productivity in exposed cattle.

Mycotoxicosis is an important problem in poultry industry causing global economic losses constituting a great threat. The present study was designed to investigate the ameliorative effects of four different antimycotoxicosis compounds (AMCs) against production, economic performance and humoral immunity induced by intoxication of dietary aflatoxin (AF) and/or ochratoxin (OT) in broiler chicks. Experiment (I), AF (23 ppb) and OT (17 ppb) were fed alone or mixed and in association with antimycotoxin feed additives, product A or B (1 and 0.5 g/kg feed), respectively. In experiment (II), the intoxicated chicks treated with antimycotoxin drugs, product C or D in drinking water (1ml/liter/3 successive days and 0.5 ml/liter/one day), respectively. Results revealed that chicks intoxicated with AF and/or OT showed significant (P<0.05) increase in feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality percentages (%) while the antibody titers against Newcastle disease (ND) virus were significantly (P<0.05) reduced. It is interesting to note that the adverse effects on FCR and mortality % were significantly (P<0.05) reduced in the single AF or OT contaminated diets with dietary supplementation of product A but in the mixed AF and OT contaminated diet, FCR were significantly (P<0.05) decreased with addition of product B. Also, product B showed significant (P<0.05) increase in the antibody titers against ND in all AF and/or OT contaminated groups. Moreover, the treatment of AF and/or OT intoxicated chicks with product C or D in the drinking water was reported significant (P<0.05) decrease in the mortality% and non-significant (P>0.05) change in FCR and ND antibody titers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are possibly millions of mold species on earth. The vast majority of these mold spores live in harmony with humans, rarely causing disease. The rare species that does cause disease does so by triggering allergies or asthma, or may be involved in hypersensitivity diseases such as allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis or allergic fungal sinusitis. Other hypersensitivity diseases include those related to occupational or domiciliary exposures to certain mold species, as in the case of Pigeon Breeder's disease, Farmer's lung, or humidifier fever. The final proven category of fungal diseases is through infection, as in the case of onchomycosis or coccidiomycosis. These diseases can be treated using anti-fungal agents. Molds and fungi can also be particularly important in infections that occur in immunocompromised patients. Systemic candidiasis does not occur unless the individual is immunodeficient. Previous reports of 'toxic mold syndrome' or 'toxic black mold' have been shown to be no more than media hype and mass hysteria, partly stemming from the misinterpreted concept of the 'sick building syndrome.' There is no scientific evidence that exposure to visible black mold in apartments and buildings can lead to the vague and subjective symptoms of memory loss, inability to focus, fatigue, and headaches that were reported by people who erroneously believed that they were suffering from 'mycotoxicosis.' Similarly, a causal relationship between cases of infant pulmonary hemorrhage and exposure to 'black mold' has never been proven. Finally, there is no evidence of a link between autoimmune disease and mold exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of yeast against mycotoxicosis induced by Aspergillus parasiticus and Fusarium tricinctum as common fungal contaminants on albino rats. 60 albino rats were randomly divided into three experimental groups: (A, B and C), each contain 20 animals. Group A: rats were kept as a control group was feed on uncontaminated feed and drinking water without any treatments. Group B: animals were feed contaminated diet with aflatoxins in level of 0.5 mg/kg ration and diacetoxyscirpenol in level of 10mg/kg ration. Group C: animals were feed contaminated diet as in group B. mixed with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (2g/kg of feed) during the whole time of the experiment. At the end of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th month, respectively, five animals from each group were weighted and dissected. Tissue samples were obtained from liver, kidneys and intestine for histopathological examination by light and electron microscope. The rats showed reduction of body weight and weight gain in group B. Addition of yeast to contaminated diet in the group C improved this reduction. Histopathological and ultrastructural studies revealed pathological changes in liver and kidney in group B. administration of yeast improve the intensity and the prevalence of the lesions and enhances the immune response of the body against mycotoxicosis (Lymphocytes and plasma cells). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute bovine liver disease (ABLD) is a hepatotoxicity principally of cattle which occurs in southern regions of Australia. Severely affected animals undergo rapid clinical progression with mortalities often occurring prior to the recognition of clinical signs. Less severely affected animals develop photosensitization and a proportion can develop liver failure. The characteristic histopathological lesion in acute fatal cases is severe, with acute necrosis of periportal hepatocytes with hemorrhage into the necrotic areas. Currently there are a small number of toxins that are known to cause periportal necrosis in cattle, although none of these have so far been linked to ABLD. Furthermore, ABLD has frequently been associated with the presence of rough dog's tail grass (Cynosurus echinatus) and Drechslera spp. fungi in the pasture system, but it is currently unknown if these are etiological factors. Much of the knowledge about ABLD is contained within case reports, with very little experimental research investigating the specific cause(s). This review provides an overview of the current and most recently published knowledge of ABLD. It also draws on wider research and unpublished reports to suggest possible fungi and mycotoxins that may give rise to ABLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CASE HISTORY: A herd of Holstein, Jersey, or Holstein-Jersey cross lactating cattle of mixed ages presented with a sudden drop in milk yield in 94/678 cows on 3 October 2014 (Day 0). The herd was located in Gretna in the Derwent Valley (Tasmania, Australia) and had been grazing dryland pasture. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On Day 0 the cows variably showed recumbency, peracute photosensitisation, inflamed coronary bands, conjunctival erythema, periauricular oedema, distress indicated by kicking at the flank, bruxism, discomfort, weight shifting, vocalisation indicating pain and depression. Blood samples collected on Day 4 from five clinically affected cows showed high activities of aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate dehydrogenase and gamma-glutamyl transferase. Morbidity, based on the number of treated cases within 72 hours of clinical onset, was estimated at 165/678 cows (24.3%). Mortality over the first 30 days was 19/678 cows (2.8%). PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS: Necropsies of two cows on Day 4 showed marked distension of the gall bladder and extensive icterus. Necropsies of another two cows on Day 5 showed enlarged livers with severe damage and oedema of the distal abomasum. Severe ulcerative abomasal gastritis was present in both cows. Hepatic histopathology was consistent with chronic cholangiohepatitis. MYCOTOXICOLOGY: Fifty-five different mycotoxins were detected from a barley grass (Hordeum murinum) sample from the presumably contaminated pasture. Concentrations of B-trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone metabolites from this sample were remarkably high. The leaf smut,Jamesdicksonia dactylidis, that has not been previously reported in Tasmania, was identified from the sample of barley grass, but it is not known whether the smut can produce toxins. DIAGNOSIS: Probably an undescribed peracute mycotoxicosis associated with the ingestion of contaminated dryland pasture. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A definitive diagnosis could not be reached in this case of acute photosensitisation and mortality in dairy cattle grazing possibly contaminated dryland pasture. The findings differed from both facial eczema and acute bovine liver disease, suggesting an undescribed mycotoxicosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxigenic fungi can infect and produce potent mycotoxins in foodstuffs prior to harvest, during harvest (field fungi), and in storage after harvest (storage fungi), which when ingested, can result in adverse health effects. This study was aimed at assessing the knowledge, attitudes, and practices adopted by the Ghanaian populace to help mitigate the occurrence of molds and mycotoxins in foods. A cross-sectional survey involving a structured questionnaire was conducted with 642 respondents from twelve regions of Ghana. Descriptive statistics and analyses of variance were calculated. Correct Classification Rate (CCR) was measured to assess the utility of a logistic regression model. The results of the study showed that the majority of 299 (46.6%) of the respondents were between the ages of 18-25. Age and educational level were related to knowledge about the occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in foods (p < 0.05). More than half the respondents, 50% indicated that they knew of aflatoxins as a major mycotoxin present in food. Higher education directly influenced on the knowledge of mycotoxicosis and the management of stored food to present intoxication by fungal metabolites. 502 (32.9%) knew that consuming foods with toxins could cause stomach aches. The most commonly consumed food commodity despite the presence of visible growth of fungi was bread (35.3%). The average KAP score for knowledge showed that, out of 100%, there was adequate knowledge (63.8%) among the members of the Ghanaian populace. Favorable environmental conditions of high humidity (> 85% ERH) and temperature (> 28-32 °C) enhance the proliferation of fungi in most foods and the attendant production of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, and fumonisins are associated with several severe human and animal health conditions; mycotoxicosis was associated with high fever, pain, vomiting, suppression of immunity, cancer, etc. when these foods are consumed on regular basis for a prolonged length of time. Future examination of the food items used for the School Feeding Programme in Ghana will offer opportunities to examine the risks of feeding youth with fungal-contaminated food preparations from providers., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Natural contamination of sorghum grains by aflatoxin B1and total fumonisin and their producing toxigenic fungi has been studied. A total of 90 sorghum grain samples were collected from small-scale farmers’ threshing floors and 5–6 months later from underground pits during 2013 harvest from three districts of East Hararghe, Ethiopia. Mycotoxin analysis was done using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The limits of detection were in the range 0.01–0.03 μg kg–1. The results revealed that all sorghum grain samples were contaminated with bothAspergillusandFusariumspecies. Aflatoxin B1was detected at levels ranging from

Health risks associated with the consumption of products contaminated with mycotoxins are worldwide recognized and depend on the extent to which they are consumed in diversified diet. To some extent, the presence of small amount of mycotoxins in cereals and related food products is unavoidable; this requires risk assessments which are to be carried out by regulatory bodies in several countries to help establish regulatory guidelines for the protection of public health. By assessing the levels at which these substances in food may pose a potential risk to human health, it is possible to devise appropriate risk management strategies. However, several important factors have to be taken into account in making a rational risk management decision, such as adequate toxicological data and information concerning the extent of exposure, availability of technically sound analytical procedures (including sampling), socioeconomic factors, food intake patterns and levels of mycotoxins in food commodities which may vary considerably between countries.

This study was conducted to examine field cases of mycotoxicosis (A flatoxicosis and ochratoxicosis) and their effects on calcium during the preproduction period of 1SA brown pullets. Birds were 12-15 weeks of age. The feed was subjected to analysis for mycotoxin and blood samples were laboratory diagnosed for infectious bronchitis and infectious bursal viruses antibody titer and for determination calcium level. Clinical signs of affected birds were rubbery bone, ruffled feather, paleness and high mortality. Necropsy findings of sick birds were characterized by muscle dehydration, enlarged livers yellowished, kidney enlargement and urate deposition. Histopathological features of liver consisted of capsular thickening hepatocellular necrosis, subcapsular infiltration with inflammatory kidneys cells showed swelling of tubular cells, deposition of calcium between kidney tubules with infiltration of inflammatory cells. ELISA test revealed the presence of 800 ppb aflatoxin and 100 ppb ochratoxin. Normal titers of infectious bronchitis virus and infectious bursal diseases antibodies were recorded. Low blood calcium level of 8.2 mg/dl was registered in the tested blood samples.

Um surto de aflatoxicose crônica é relatado em bezerros de raça leiteira. Quarenta bezerros holandeses machos de quatro meses de idade e aproximadamente 100kg eram mantidos em gaiolas individuais de 1,5 x 1,5m e alimentados com uma ração constituída por feno de alfafa, milho quebrado e substituto de leite. Seis bezerros (15%) morreram após apresentar uma doença caracterizada por mau desenvolvimento geral, diarreia, pelagem áspera, dor abdominal, tenesmo, prolapso de reto e bruxismo. Alguns bezerros "deitavam e rolavam" no chão da gaiola. A duração do curso clínico, segundo observado pelos proprietários, foi de 2-3 dias; muitos terneiros desse lote que não morreram permaneceram pouco desenvolvidos. Três bezerros foram necropsiados. Os achados de necropsia incluíam fígado firme e castanho-claro, marcados hidrotórax e ascite, e edema do mesentério, mesocólon e das dobras da mucosa do abomaso. Os principais achados histopatológicos estavam restritos ao fígado e consistiam de fibrose, moderada megalocitose, hiperplasia de ductos biliares e lesão veno-oclusiva. A procura por contaminação de Senecio spp. no feno de alfafa resultou negativa. A análise do milho do alimento dos bezerros por cromatografia de camada delgada revelou 5.136ppb de aflatoxina B1. O diagnóstico de aflatoxicose foi feito baseado nos sinais clínicos e patologia característicos, na ausência de Senecio spp. na alimentação dos terneiros e na presença de altos níveis de aflatoxina no milho da alimentação dos bezerros.An outbreak of chronic aflatoxicosis is reported in dairy calves. Forty 4-month-old male Holstein calves of approximately 100kg were kept in individual cages of 1.5 x 1.5m and were fed a ration constituted by alfalfa hay, broken corn and milk substitute. Six calves (15%) died after presenting a disease characterized by general unthriftiness, diarrhea, rough hair coats, abdominal pain, prolapsed rectum, grinding of teeth, and lying down and rolling. The clinical course, as observed by the owners, was 2-3 days; however many calves in this lot that did not die, remained underdeveloped. Three calves were necropsied. Necropsy findings included firm, light tan livers and marked hydrothorax, ascites and edema of the mesentery, mesocolon and of the mucosal folds of the abomasum. Main histopathological changes were restricted to the liver and consisted of fibrosis, moderate megalocytosis, biliary duct hyperplasia and veno-occlusive disease. The search for Senecio spp. contamination in the alfalfa hay resulted negative. The analysis by thin layer chromatography of the corn fed to calves revealed 5,136 ppb of aflatoxin B1. A diagnosis of aflatoxicosis was made based on the characteristic clinical signs and pathology, on the absence of Senecio spp. in the food and on the presence of high levels of aflatoxin in the corn fed to the calves.

Forty five finished poultry feed samples, collected from different broilers, broiler breeders and layers farms were divided into two parts, for mycological and mycotoxins examination. In counting of molds, dilute plate technique was used, whereas feed parts were used for mycotoxin estimation, they were subjected to four standard kits of Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin, T-2 toxin and Fumonisins. Mold counts were around 105 cfu.g-1 sample. Fourteen mold genera were recovered. From the systematic point of view, 2 genera belonged to Zygomycetes (i.e. Mucor, Rhizopus,), 1 genus belong to Ascomycetes (i.e. Eurotium); the majority, within so-called mitotic fungi (formerly Deuteromycetes), encompassed 11 genera (i.e. Acremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Scopulariopsis,, Trichothecium, Ulocladium and Aerobasidium). The most frequent fungi were those from the genus Aspergillus. The concentrations of the four analyzed mycotoxins in the poultry finished feeds, and the percentages of the recovered mycotoxins, revealed that aflatoxins was recovered in 91.1% of the examined samples, with a mean value of 179.1µg/kg. The same percentage was found with Ochratoxins, but with lower mean concentration of 159.4µg/kg. In the third order were Fumonisins mycotoxins were in the third order, and they were recovered in 51.1% of the tested samples with a mean value of 127µg/kg. In the fourth order was T-2 toxin, with a percentage of 2.2% and a value of 50.0µg/kg.

The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of fungal organisms (especially Aspergillus species) in feeds used in poultry farms in Sokoto metropolis. During a period of 12 months (from April 2010 to March 2011), a total of 239 poultry feed samples comprising of 204 commercially prepared feeds and 35 self-compounded feeds were collected from 76 identified poultry farms in Sokoto and environs. Of the total 80 questionnaires administered, 76 (95.00%) were responded to. Out of the total samples, fungal species were isolated from 198 (82.9%) comprising of commercially prepared 163 (79.9%) and self-compounded 35 (100.0%) feed samples. A total of 258 fungal isolates were identified out of which 136 (52.7%) were Aspergillus species. The most prevalent species were Aspergillus fumigatus 80 (58.8%) followed by Aspergillus flavus 56 (41.2%). Since Aspergillus species are among the leading mycotoxigenic fungi, this study reveals that a potential exists for the production of mycotoxins that may be of both veterinary public health significance and its attending economic losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungal toxicosis is one of the major sources of loss of productivity among livestocks and poultry. To study and analyze the effects of mycotoxins on livestock, it is important to distinguish between two commonly used term i.e. mycotoxicosis and mycosis. Organ specific damage and the invasive attack by the mycotoxin generate the severe ill effects on the health of the productive animal. Mycotoxins can also be an agent of carcinogenesis in animals and human beings. Thus, it is important to prevent the growth of fungus and also to restrict the use of contaminated food and fodder either to human or animal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute bovine liver disease (ABLD) is a hepatotoxicity principally of cattle which occurs in southern regions of Australia. Severely affected animals undergo rapid clinical progression with mortalities often occurring prior to the recognition of clinical signs. Less severely affected animals develop photosensitization and a proportion can develop liver failure. The characteristic histopathological lesion in acute fatal cases is severe, with acute necrosis of periportal hepatocytes with hemorrhage into the necrotic areas. Currently there are a small number of toxins that are known to cause periportal necrosis in cattle, although none of these have so far been linked to ABLD. Furthermore, ABLD has frequently been associated with the presence of rough dog’s tail grass (Cynosurus echinatus) and Drechslera spp. fungi in the pasture system, but it is currently unknown if these are etiological factors. Much of the knowledge about ABLD is contained within case reports, with very little experimental research investigating the specific cause(s). This review provides an overview of the current and most recently published knowledge of ABLD. It also draws on wider research and unpublished reports to suggest possible fungi and mycotoxins that may give rise to ABLD.

A natural poisoning case caused by ingestion of Paspalum paspaloides (Michx.) Scribner infected by Claviceps paspali in a bovine herd in Huelva (Spain) is described. This kind of intoxication, frequently described in South Africa and America is rare in Europe and this is the first description in Spain. Clinical signs, which affected 23 calves out of a total of 130 animals, consisted in a nervous syndrome characterized by tremor, hyperexcitability, incoordination, ataxia, depression and paralysis, signs that were aggravated when animals were subjected to certain types of exercises. The most relevant lesions were detected in the brain and consisted in microhaemorrhages diffused through the parenchyma of the brain, neuronal degeneration, satellitosis, neuronophagia, gliosis, and moderate neuropil degeneration in the peripheral zones of the brain.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of naturally contaminated Fusarium wheat containing deoxynivalenol (DON) on growth and performance of broiler chickens from 0 to 35 d. The BoMill TriQ individual kernel sorting technology uses near infrared transmittance (NIT) spectra to separate Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK) from healthy kernels based on individual kernel CP. Three Fusariumcontaminated wheat sources were individually sorted into 3 test fractions: outlier (10% of the source), high mycotoxin (20% of the source), and low mycotoxin (70% of the source). These fractions were reconstituted into 4 ratios--M0, M20, M40, and M60--relating to the proportion of the high mycotoxin fraction in the reconstituted diets. These 12 reconstituted wheat sources with varying levels of DON were incorporated at ~70% (starter) or ~75% (grower/finisher) into diets. The fractions of wheat used had FDK ranging from 0.1 to 25.8% and DON from 0.0 to 14.3 ppm. A total of 480 newly hatched Ross 308 male broilers were randomly divided into 96 cages. Each test diet was assigned to 8 replicates with 5 birds per replicate cage. At 21 d, 180 birds were transferred to 36 cages, allowing 3 replicates of 5 birds per diet until 35 d. A factorial arrangement analysis compared the 3 wheat sources and 4 ratios produced from each sorted wheat. Growth and performance were evaluated as BW (g), feed intake (FI; g/bird/day), feed conversion ratio (FCR; g:g), AME (kcal ME/kg diet), nitrogen retention (NR; %), and mortality (%) for 0 to 21 d and 21 to 35 d. Results indicate no significant difference in BW, FI, and FCR (P > 0.05). Significant differences were seen in AME and NR (P < 0.01). This study demonstrates the potential of this novel sorting technology to produce naturally contaminated diets with a large range of mycotoxin concentrations from a single wheat source to enable future investigations of mycotoxin exposure in any species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]