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In renal epithelia, vasopressin influences salt and water transport, chiefly via vasopressin [V.sub.2] receptors ([V.sub.2]Rs) linked to adenylyl cyclase. A combination of vasopressin-induced effects along several distinct portions of the nephron and collecting duct system may help balance the net effects of antidiuresis in cortex and medulla. Previous studies of the intrarenal distribution of [V.sub.2]Rs have been inconclusive with respect to segment- and cell-type-related [V.sub.2]R expression. Our study therefore aimed to present a high-resolution analysis of [V.sub.2]R mRNA expression in rat, mouse, and human kidney epithelia, supplemented with immunohistochemical data. Cell types of the renal tubule were identified histochemically using specific markers. Pronounced [V.sub.2]R signal in thick ascending limb (TAL) was corroborated functionally; phosphorylation of [Na.sup.+]-[K.sup.+]-2[Cl.sup.-] cotransporter type 2 (NKCC2) was established in cultured TAL cells from rabbit and in rats with diabetes insipidus that were treated with the [V.sub.2]R agonist desmopressin. We found solid expression of [V.sub.2]R mRNA in medullary TAL (MTAL), macula densa, connecting tubule, and cortical and medullary collecting duct and weaker expression in cortical TAL and distal convoluted tubule in all three species. Additional [V.sub.2]R immunostaining of kidneys and rabbit TAL cells confirmed our findings. In agreement with strong [V.sub.2]R expression in MTAL, kidneys from rats with diabetes insipidus and cultured TAL cells revealed sharp, selective increases in NKCC2 phosphorylation upon desmopressin treatment. Macula densa cells constitutively showed strong NKCC2 phosphorylation. Results suggest comparably significant effects of vasopressin-induced [V.sub.2]R signaling in MTAL and in connecting tubule/collecting duct principal cells across the three species. Strong [V.sub.2]R expression in macula densa may be related to tubulovascular signal transfer. antidiuretic hormone; thick ascending limb; kidney; sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter type 2; bumetanide-sensitive cotransporter type 1

The cellular localization of immunoreactive tissue kallikrein and kininogen was studied in normal and psoriatic human skin. Immunoreactivity to both enzyme and substrate was observed in secretory granules of the dark cells in the secretory fundus (acinus) of the sweat glands. Double immunostaining revealed a segmental distribution of the two antigens. Each acinar section contained either tissue kallikrein or kininogen. However, there appeared to be a junctional zone in which both were present, but in separate dark cells. Immunoreactivity for both antigens was also observed in close apposition to the luminal microvilli of the duct cells. No specific immunostaining was seen in sebaceous glands, hair follicles, keratinocytes and other cells of the secretory unit such as myoepithelial or clear cells. In psoriatic skin there were in addition many neutrophiis immunoreactive for tissue kallikrein in the epidermis and psoriatic scales. Mitogenic action of kinins may account to some extent for the characteristic accelerated turnover of epidermal cells in psoriasis and locally applied kinin antagonists may prove of value in the treatment of this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Persistent mitochondrial hyperpolarization (MHP) and enhanced calcium fluxing underlie aberrant T cell activation and death pathway selection in systemic lupus erythematosus. Treatment with rapamycin, which effectively controls disease activity, normalizes CD3/CD28-induced calcium fluxing but fails to influence MHP, suggesting that altered calcium fluxing is downstream or independent of mitochondrial dysfunction. In this article, we show that activity of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), which is a sensor of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, is increased in lupus T cells. Activation of mTOR was inducible by NO, a key trigger of MHP, which in turn enhanced the expression of HRES-1/Rab4, a small GTPase that regulates recycling of surface receptors through early endosomes. Expression of HRES-1/Rab4 was increased in CD4(+) lupus T cells, and in accordance with its dominant impact on the endocytic recycling of CD4, it was inversely correlated with diminished CD4 expression. HRES-1/Rab4 overexpression was also inversely correlated with diminished TCRzeta protein levels. Pull-down studies revealed a direct interaction of HRES-1/Rab4 with CD4 and TCRzeta. Importantly, the deficiency of the TCRzeta chain and of Lck and the compensatory up-regulation of FcepsilonRIgamma and Syk, which mediate enhanced calcium fluxing in lupus T cells, were reversed in patients treated with rapamcyin in vivo. Knockdown of HRES-1/Rab4 by small interfering RNA and inhibitors of lysosomal function augmented TCRzeta protein levels in vitro. The results suggest that activation of mTOR causes the loss of TCRzeta in lupus T cells through HRES-1/Rab4-dependent lysosomal degradation.

Ferritin is a protein principally known for its role in iron storage. We have previously shown that ferritin can bind high-molecular-weight kininogen (HK). Upon proteolytic cleavage by the protease kallikrein, HK releases the proinflammatory peptide bradykinin (BK) and other biologically active products, such as two-chain high-molecular-weight kininogen, HKa. At inflammatory sites, HK is oxidized, which renders it a poor substrate for kallikrein. However, oxidized HK remains a good substrate for elastase and tryptase, thereby providing an alternative cleavage mechanism for HK during inflammation. Here we report that ferritin can retard the cleavage of both native HK and oxidized HK by elastase and tryptase. Initial rates of cleavage were reduced 45-75% in the presence of ferritin. Ferritin is not a substrate for elastase or tryptase and does not interfere with the ability of either protease to digest a synthetic substrate, suggesting that ferritin may impede HK cleavage through direct interaction with HK. Immunoprecipitation and solid phase binding studies reveal that ferritin and HK bind directly with a Kd of 134 nM. To test whether ferritin regulates HK cleavage in vivo, we used THP-1 cells, a human monocyte/macrophage cell line that has been used to model pulmonary inflammatory cells. We observed that ferritin impedes the cleavage of HK by secretory proteases in stimulated macrophages. Furthermore, ferritin, HK, and elastase are all present in or on alveolar macrophages in a mouse model of pulmonary inflammation. Collectively, these results implicate ferritin in the modulation of HK cleavage at sites of inflammation.

Ectopic calcification is a frequent complication of many degenerative diseases. Here we identify the serum protein alpha2-Heremans-Schmid glycoprotein (Ahsg, also known as fetuin-A) as an important inhibitor of ectopic calcification acting on the systemic level. Ahsg-deficient mice are phenotypically normal, but develop severe calcification of various organs on a mineral and vitamin D-rich diet and on a normal diet when the deficiency is combined with a DBA/2 genetic background. This phenotype is not associated with apparent changes in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, but with a decreased inhibitory activity of the Ahsg-deficient extracellular fluid on mineral formation. The same underlying principle may contribute to many calcifying disorders including calciphylaxis, a syndrome of severe systemic calcification in patients with chronic renal failure. Taken together, our data demonstrate a critical role of Ahsg as an inhibitor of unwanted mineralization and provide a novel therapeutic concept to prevent ectopic calcification accompanying various diseases.

Activity and localization of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is regulated in a remarkably complex fashion, yet the complex molecular machinery mastering stimulus-induced eNOS translocation and trafficking is poorly understood. In a search by the yeast two-hybrid system using the eNOS oxygenase domain as bait, we have identified a previously uncharacterized eNOS-interacting protein, dubbed NOSTRIN (for eNOS traffic inducer). NOSTRIN contains a single polypeptide chain of 506-aa residues of 58 kDa with an N-terminal cdc15 domain and a C-terminal SH3 domain. NOSTRIN mRNA is abundant in highly vascularized tissues such as placenta, kidney, lung, and heart, and NOSTRIN protein is expressed in vascular endothelial cells. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated the eNOS-NOSTRIN interaction in vitro and in vivo, and NOSTRIN's SH3 domain was essential and sufficient for eNOS binding. NOSTRIN colocalized extensively with eNOS at the plasma membrane of confluent human umbilical venous endothelial cells and in punctate cytosolic structures of CHO-eNOS cells. NOSTRIN overexpression induced a profound redistribution of eNOS from the plasma membrane to vesicle-like structures matching the NOSTRIN pattern and at the same time led to a significant inhibition of NO release. We conclude that NOSTRIN contributes to the intricate protein network controlling activity, trafficking, and targeting of eNOS.

The SspB cysteine protease of Staphylococcus aureus is expressed in an operon, flanked by the sspA serine protease, and sspC, encoding a 12.9-kDa protein of unknown function. SspB was expressed as a 40-kDa prepropeptide pSspB, which did not undergo autocatalytic maturation. Activity of pSspB was reduced compared with 22-kDa mature SspB, but it was equivalent to mature SspB after incubation with SspA, which specifically removed the pSspB N-terminal propeptide. SspC abrogated the activity of pSspB when incubated in a 1:1 complex but had no effect on SspA or papain. Activity of the pSspB.SspC complex was restored when incubated with SspA, and SspC was cleaved by SspA but not pSspB. Thus, SspC maintains pSspB as an inert zymogen, and SspA is required for removal of the propeptide and inactivation of SspC. Like the papain protease family, SspB cleaved substrates with a hydrophobic amino acid at P2 but had a strong preference for arginine at P1. It did not cleave casein, serum albumin, IgG, or IgA, but it promoted detachment of cultured keratinocytes and cleaved fibronectin and fibrinogen at sites recognized by urokinase plasminogen activator and plasmin, respectively. It also processed high molecular weight kininogen in a manner resembling plasma kallikrein. Thus, SspB exhibits a novel maturation mechanism and mimics the specificity of plasma serine proteases.

Reversible phosphorylation plays important roles in G protein-coupled receptor signaling, desensitization, and endocytosis, yet the precise location and role of in vivo phosphorylation sites is unknown for most receptors. Using metabolic 32P labeling and phosphopeptide sequencing we provide a complete phosphorylation map of the human bradykinin B2 receptor in its native cellular environment. We identified three serine residues, Ser(339), Ser(346), and Ser(348), at the C-terminal tail as principal phosphorylation sites. Constitutive phosphorylation occurs at Ser(348), while ligand-induced phosphorylation is found at Ser(339) and Ser(346)/Ser(348) that could be executed by several G protein-coupled receptor kinases. In addition, we found a protein kinase C-dependent phosphorylation of Ser(346) that was mutually exclusive with the basal phosphorylation at Ser(348) and therefore may be implicated in differential regulation of B2 receptor activation. Functional analysis of receptor mutants revealed that a low phosphorylation stoichiometry is sufficient to initiate receptor sequestration while a clustered phosphorylation around Ser(346) is necessary for desensitization of the B2 receptor-induced phospholipase C activation. This was further supported by the specifically reduced Ser(346)/Ser(348) phosphorylation observed upon stimulation with a nondesensitizing B2 receptor agonist. The differential usage of clustered phosphoacceptor sites points to distinct roles of multiple kinases in controlling G protein-coupled receptor function.

Calreticulin is a Ca2+-binding chaperone in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and calreticulin gene knockout is embryonic lethal. Here, we used calreticulin-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts to examine the function of calreticulin as a regulator of Ca2+ homeostasis. In cells without calreticulin, the ER has a lower capacity for Ca2+ storage, although the free ER luminal Ca2+ concentration is unchanged. Calreticulin-deficient cells show inhibited Ca2+ release in response to bradykinin, yet they release Ca2+ upon direct activation with the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3). These cells fail to produce a measurable level of InsP3 upon stimulation with bradykinin, likely because the binding of bradykinin to its cell surface receptor is impaired. Bradykinin binding and bradykinin-induced Ca2+ release are both restored by expression of full-length calreticulin and the N + P domain of the protein. Expression of the P + C domain of calreticulin does not affect bradykinin-induced Ca2+ release but restores the ER Ca2+ storage capacity. Our results indicate that calreticulin may play a role in folding of the bradykinin receptor, which affects its ability to initiate InsP3-dependent Ca2+ release in calreticulin-deficient cells. We concluded that the C domain of calreticulin plays a role in Ca2+ storage and that the N domain may participate in its chaperone functions.

Kinin B1-receptors are induced by various inflammatory stimuli. Since myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion results in inflammation, we questioned whether it could induce B1-receptor-dependent responses to des-Arg9-bradykinin (DBK). Thirty-six rabbits were submitted either to a 30 min coronary occlusion followed by a 3 h reperfusion or to a sham operation. The response to DBK was then tested in vivo on mean arterial pressure (MAP) and in vitro on isolated hearts and arterial rings. DBK induced a dose-dependent decrease in MAP in the ischaemia-reperfusion group (DBK, 10 microg kg(-1), intra-arterial: -12 +/- 2 vs. -5 +/- 2 mm Hg in the sham group, P < 0.02), which was significantly antagonised by [Leu8]-des-Arg9-bradykinin (LBK), a B1-receptor antagonist. Following ischaemia-reperfusion, isolated hearts responded to DBK by a decrease in coronary perfusion pressure greater than that of the sham group. DBK dose-dependently decreased the isometric force of isolated carotid rings (DBK, 10(-5) M: -9 +/- 2 vs. -1 +/- 2% in the sham group, P < 0.02) and mesenteric arteries (DBK, 10-6 M: -38 +/- 7% vs. -3 +/- 2 % in the sham group, P < 0.001). The vascular effects of DBK seen after ischaemia-reperfusion were significantly antagonised by LBK. The presence of B1-receptors in ischaemia-reperfusion animals was confirmed by immunolocalisation and Western blot analysis. This study demonstrates that myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion induces a global induction of functional kinin B1-receptors in the endothelium.

Redistribution of receptors within the plasma membrane as well as between the plasma membrane and various cell compartments presents an important way of regulating the cellular responsiveness to their cognate agonists. We have applied immunocytochemical methods to localize the bradykinin B2 receptor and to examine its agonist induced redistribution in A431 cells. In situ labeling with antibodies to ectodomain-2 of the receptor which do not interfere with bradykinin binding of the receptor showed a random distribution of the B2 receptor on the plasma membrane. Stimulation of cells with 20 nM bradykinin markedly reduced the accessibility of the antibody to its corresponding epitope in non-permeabilized cells. Immuno-electron microscopy revealed the presence of receptors in membrane-near vesicles that are surrounded by an electron-transparent halo. Fluorescence microscopic double labeling co-localized the B2 receptor protein with caveolin-1 by a convergent pattern of punctate staining. At the ultrastructural level the B2 receptor protein was found in vesicles that bear the immunolabel of caveolin-1 and display the morphological characteristics of caveolae. We conclude that stimulation of B2 receptors results in their redistribution and sequestration in caveolae, an event that is likely to be implicated in receptor signaling and/or desensitization. The localization of B2 receptors in endosome-like structures after prolonged exposure to bradykinin might indicate that the internalization through caveolae may communicate with other endocytotic pathways of A431 cells.

Bradykinin B2 receptors were localized in the sheep brain and spinal cord by quantitative in vitro autoradiography using a radiolabelled and specific bradykinin B2 receptor antagonist analogue, 3-4-hydroxyphenyl-propionyl-D-Arg0-[Hyp3,Thi5,D-Tic 7,Oic8]bradykinin, (HPP-HOE 140). This radioligand displays high affinity and specificity for bradykinin B2 receptors. The respective K(i) values of 0.32, 1.37 and 156 nM were obtained for bradykinin, HOE140 and D-Arg[Hyp3,D-Phe7,Leu8]bradykinin competing for radioligand binding to lamina II of sheep spinal cord sections. Using this radioligand, we have demonstrated the distribution of bradykinin B2 receptors in many brain regions which have not been previously reported. The highest density of bradykinin B2 receptors occur in the pleoglial periaqueductal gray, oculomotor and trochlear nuclei and the circumventricular organs. Moderate densities of receptors occur in the substantia nigra, particularly the reticular part, the posterior thalamic and subthalamic nuclei, zona incerta, the red and pontine nuclei, some of the pretectal nuclei and in discrete layers of the superior colliculus. In the hindbrain, moderate levels of bradykinin B2 receptor binding occur in the nucleus of the solitary tract, and in spinal trigeminal, inferior olivary, cuneate and vestibular nuclei. Laminae II, X and dorsal root ganglia display the most striking binding densities in the spinal cord, while the remainder of the dorsal and ventral horn display a low and diffuse density of binding. Bradykinin B2 receptors are extensively distributed throughout the sheep brain and spinal cord, not only to sensory areas but also to areas involved in motor activity.

Both plasma prekallikrein and H-kininogen were immunolocalised in human hepatocytes by the use of immunocytochemical techniques in conjunction with the confocal optical scanning microscopy. In contrast, both proteins were demonstrated on the external surface of human blood neutrophils. However, detection of H-kininogen on non-fixed but not on fixed neutrophils with the anti-domain 6 antibody (directed at the prekallikrein binding site on H-kininogen), suggested that access to the epitope was blocked by the presence of the bound plasma prekallikrein. Therefore, we prepose that H-kininogen provides the binding site for plasma prekallikrein on circulating neutrophils.

Three sets of monoclonal antibodies against bradykinin (MBK1, MBK2, MBK3) were generated by somatic cell fusion, characterized by their peptide specificity and compared to the known ligand specificity of the kinin receptor subtypes. By these criteria the paratope of MBK3 resembled the B2 receptor binding site whereas MBK1 shared principal binding characteristics with the B1 recrptor. Anti-idiotypic antibodies against MBK1, MBK2 and MBK3 were raised in rabbit and sheep. Specificity of the network components was verified by inhibition experiments on the level of peptide, idiotype and anti-idiotype. Anti-idiotypic antibodies against MBK3 recognized a conformation-dependent epitope which was binding site-related. Binding studies on human foreskin fibroblasts and guinea pig ileum showed mutual displacement of the anti-idiotypic antibody and bradykinin at the binding site pointing to a specific interaction of the antibody with the receptor from various species. An agonist activity of the antibodies, demonstrated in human (inositolphosphate pathway) and mouse (prostaglandin pathway) fibroblasts indicated that the anti-idiotypes bear an internal image of the ligand epitope. This molecular mimicry which was further substantiated by the detection of bradykinin specific anti-idiotypic antibodies, provides the structural basis for the observed cross-reactivity over species borders.

Kininogens have been purified from human plasma to apparent homogeneity. Native human LMW kininogen is a single-chain (glyco-) protein of molecular weight 68,000, which is converted to a two-chain protein by limited proteolysis with tissue kallikrein to form a heavy chain (Mr 62,000) and a light chain (Mr 4,000). Human HMW kininogen represents a single chain (glyco-)protein of Mr 114,000 which is split into two chains of similar size (H-chain of Mr 58,000 and L-chain of Mr 62,000) by limited proteolysis with tissue kallikrein. Sequence analysis of the isolated L-chain of human MW kininogen indicates a partial homology to the corresponding fragment-1.2 of bovine HMW kininogen. Purified kininogens readily form self-aggregates ranging from dimer to hexamer (HMW kininogen) and from dimer to decamer (LMW kininogen), respectively. Self-association is completely reversible in the presence of dissociating agents. Preliminary evidence suggests that oligomerisation is mediated by the H-chain common to the two types of kininogens.