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In South Asian countries, the lucrative production of peaches has been seriously threatened by an assortment of biotic stresses especially nematodes. This situation compromises the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) related to food security and zero hunger. Recently under changing climate, root-knot nematodes of the genus Meloidogyne have emerged as the most damaging phytopathogenic nematodes, while the efficacy of chemical control has remained limited. Therefore, a study was executed to assess the efficacy of four biocontrol agents including Pochonia chlamydosporia, Purpureocillum lilacinum, Trichoderma harzianum, and T. viride (at concentrations of 2.5 × 103, 5 × 103, 7.5 × 103, and 1 × 104) along with nematicide Rugby and a control treatment against Meloidogyne javanica on peach. The response variables included nematode infestations in terms of number of galls, egg masses, and reproductive factors. P. lilacinus and T. harzianum (1 × 104 concentration) reduced the number of galls by 18% and 16%, respectively, than the control. All biocontrol agents exhibited their effectiveness by significantly reducing number of egg masses, eggs per egg mass, and reproductive factors, while these remained statistically at par to each other. The study proved that application of these biocontrol agents holds potential for controlling root-knot nematodes and might be developed as a potent strategy to replace or at least reduce the use of traditional chemicals for avoiding environmental pollution and contamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is a major oilseed crop in Pakistan, possessing high nutritional and pharmacological properties. Sesame is highly susceptible to pathogenic fungi such as Alternaria alternata. In the present study, metabolites extracted from culture filtrates of Alternaria alternata using hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and petroleum ether solvents were evaluated for activity on seed germination and seedling health of sesame. Seeds treated with solvent-extracted metabolites from culture filtrates of A. alternata showed low germination as compared to control. Maximum reduction in germination was reported in seeds treated with petroleum ether culture filtrate followed by ethyl acetate, hexane, and chloroform. Shoot length and root length were also reduced in seeds treated with petroleum ether culture filtrate followed by ethyl acetate, hexane, and chloroform. Seedling treated with solvent-extracted metabolites from culture filtrates of A. alternata showed various symptoms including chlorosis, necrosis, discoloration, and wilting. From the present study, it is concluded that A. alternata contains certain metabolites which can reduce seed germination and are destructive for seedling stage of sesame. This is a baseline study to evaluate highly active metabolites which can be managed further to decrease sesame yield loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Pakistan, the low yield of eggplant is ascribed to legions of biotic constraints. Among biotic restraints, root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. are economically very important and cause losses to the tune of $ 125 billion per year throughout the world. The present studies were aimed to evaluate 21 eggplant genotypes against the most destructive nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, under greenhouse conditions. Of all the genotypes/varieties of eggplant, Janak and Pala were found resistant and moderately resistant to M. incognita respectively. Fifteen varieties/lines viz. EP-972, Kokila F1, EP-950, EP-906, Jhansi F1, Adv-301, KHBR-201, KHBR-202, KHBR-203, KHBR-204, EP-900, 2016, KHBR-205, EP-966 and Sultan were found susceptible while four genotypes namely Nirala, Dilnasheen, Wer and Bemisal showed highly susceptible reaction against M. incognita. All the genotypes showed significant differences in number of galls, eggmasses, females, root and soil populations, reproductive factors and eggmass/gall and eggmass/ female ratios. Minimum galls, eggmasses, and females were observed on resistant and moderately resistant genotypes. On the other hand, maximum values in these parameters were recorded on susceptible and highly susceptible genotypes/lines. Similarly, minimum number of juveniles were recovered from roots and soils of resistant genotype (Janak) followed by moderately resistant genotype (Pala) while maximum juveniles were recovered from roots and soils of susceptible and highly susceptible genotypes. Likewise, variations were also observed in reproduction of the nematode on 21 genotypes. Minimum reproductive factor of M. incognita was observed on Janak followed by Pala and maximum was recorded on Dilnasheen followed by Nirala. The reproductive factors on other genotypes were variable. A similar trend was observed in case of eggmass/gall and eggmass/female ratios in all the genotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize (Zea mays L.) is considered as one of the main cereals, used as a source of food, forage, and processed products. The loss of maize productivity is reported due to effect on roots, stalks, ears, and kernels mainly caused by many fungi. Among these fungal pathogens of maize, Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) are the most prevalent that produces highly toxigenic aflatoxins that are highly carcinogenic to the consumers. The present study is confined to isolate and characterize the A. flavus from maize seeds for accurate identification that can be helpful for determination and management of aflatoxins in maize crop. Eighty stored seed samples of maize were collected from warehouses where seeds are stored for food and feeding purposes. For the isolation of A. flavus, Potato Dextrose Agar was used. Isolated fungi were identified macro and microscopically using light microscope and scanning electron microscope. A total of 212 Aspergillus isolates were identified based on macro‐morphological and micro‐morphological characteristics. The results showed that A. flavus colonies were granular, flat with yellow‐green to deep yellow‐green colony color having a white border and compact, spherical spore heads. Rapid rate of growth was observed maturing in about 3–5 days. In microscopic features, A. flavus have apically swollen conidiophores with various conidia bearing cells in long and dry chains. Spherical conidial heads were split into several columns ranging 300–400 μm in diameter. This will be helpful for farmers, researchers and traders in future for correct identification of sources of aflatoxins. Research Highlights: Maize seed samples were collected from Pothohar region of Pakistan.The fungi were isolated on PDA.Aspergillus flavus was identified macro‐morphologically by observing growth rate, colony color and texture.Furthermore, these fungi were identified micro‐morphologically by using light and scanning electron microscope.The 212 Aspergillus flavus strains were isolated and identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Culex pipiens are blood feeding mosquitoes which are responsible for transmission of various diseases such as filariasis, encephalitis and chikungunya. Various control measures have been used to control the mosquitoes but most important is the use of synthetic insecticides. The chemical control has disrupted natural biological control system, resulted in the development of resistance, interfered with natural food chains and had undesirable effects on the environment, non-target organisms and human health. Biopesticides such as plant extracts and green synthesized nanoproducts have received much attention as potentially useful bioactive compounds against mosquitoes. In the present study, the effects of extracts of four plants i.e. Azadirachta indica, Zingiber officinale, Syzygium aromaticum and Datura stramonium and their green synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were evaluated against 3rd and 4th instar larvae of C. pipiens. The green synthesized AgNPs of these plants were characterized by UV-Multiskaner. LC20 and LC50 values were calculated through Probit and Logit analysis (POLO) software. All the plant extracts and their green synthesized AgNPs caused the maximum mortalities of 3rd and 4th larval instars of C. pipiens after 96 hours. With the increase in time intervals and concentrations, the mortalities increased showing direct positive relationships between mortalities and time intervals and concentrations. The lethal and sub lethal effects of plant extracts on the mean development of larvae was the maximum by A. indica while the effects on pupal period were the maximum by A. indica and Z. officinale. Similarly, female longevity was the maximum by A. indica and that of male by S. aromaticum. As regards green synthesized AgNPs, the lethal and sub lethal effects on the mean development of larvae and pupal period were the maximum by A. indica AgNPs. The female longevity was found to be the maximum by A. indica AgNPs and that of the male by Z. officinal AgNPs. The results were based on LC20 and LC50 values of plant extracts and green synthesized AgNPs. It is therefore, concluded that artificially synthesized AgNPs can be used as an environment friendly alternative insecticide for the management of C. pipiens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanotechnology deals with the production of small-sized nanoparticles with sizes of 1-100 nm which play a substantial role in plant disease management and are synthesized utilizing chemical, physical and biological processes. Green synthesis has gained significance over other methods of synthesizing nanoparticles. These nanoparticles are characterized using different characterization techniques like UV.VIS, FTIR, SEM, TEM, DLS, XRD, EDX, Raman spectroscopy, and Zeta potential. Selenium nanoparticles over other nanoparticles play an important role in plant disease management by controlling various plant diseases like downy mildew of pearl millet, early blight of potato, and inhibiting various fungi like Alternaria, Candida albicans, Pyricularia grisea, and Alternaria solani on chili and tomato. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aedes albopictus is a known vector of many diseases such as Dengue, Chikungunya, Zika and Yellow fever. Many control measures have been adopted to manage the vector of these diseases. The excessive use of insecticides has led to development of resistance in Aedes albopictus and negative impact on the environment and non-target organisms. To overcome these problems, emphasis is being laid for alternatives such as biopesticides which are environmental friendly and economical. Therefore, in the present study, the toxicity of eight plant extracts and their green synthesized nanoparticles was evaluated against A. albopictus. The maximum mortality of 88% of 3rd instar larvae of A. albopictus was caused by datura extract followed by neem and clove. On the other hand, neem and clove extracts caused the maximum mortality (80%) of 4th instar larvae followed by datura extract (78%). Similarly, the minimum mortalities of 3rd and 4th instar larvae were caused by bitter gourd extract. In case of green silver nanoparticles, the maximum mortalities of 3rd and 4th instar larvae of A. albopictus were caused by neem and clove followed by datura, ginger and bakain. All the green silver nanoparticles caused above 80% mortality of both the instars of the mosquito. Bakain and neem extracts showed the minimum LC50 values after 72 h of application followed by garlic against the 3rd instar A. albopictus larvae. In case of green synthesized silver nanoparticles, the minimum LC50 values after 72 h were recorded with neem, bakain and garlic while the values were maximum in the case of clove, bitter gourd and datura. Similar trend of LC50 values was observed in case of 4th instar larvae. The LC50 values decreased with an increase in the time. It is concluded that the artificially synthesized Ag-nanoparticles can be used as environmental friendly alternative insecticide for the management of A. albopictus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The novel coronavirus took the whole world by storm and in no time spread across the globe and claimed many lives. The most affected countries of the world are USA, Brazil, India, Italy, Iran, Spain, Russia, South Africa, United Kingdom and Peru. In Pakistan, the pilgrims from Iran became the major source of spread of the virus in the country, as the Government did not impose quarantine measures to restrict their movement. In Pakistan, the most affected province was Sindh followed by Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. According to WHO, the most common symptoms are fever, dry cough, sore throat, fatigue and diarrhea and shortness of breath in severe cases. The virus attacks throat, lungs and trachea converting them to virus factories to infect more cells. It attacks not only lungs but also other vital organs of the body like kidneys and heart. It is spread from human to human through respiratory droplets or direct contact. Moreover, there have been reports of the mixed infection of coronavirus with other bacteria, fungi and viruses. Various methods are used for the detection of the virus such as nucleic acid and immunological methods but RT-PCR is considered as the most reliable. Some antiviral drugs have shown to be effective against the virus like Favilavir, Remdesivir, Chloroquine, hydroxy-chloroquine, Tocilizumab etc. but further clinical studies are required to confirm their efficacy. In Pakistan, blood plasma therapy is in high demand but involves the risk of transmission of blood borne pathogens. As Pakistan lacks medical facilities. the government has to get testing kits and primers from other countries. Only few quarantine centers are available and there is shortage of drugs, beds, trained doctors and paramedical staff. Unfortunately, no vaccine is available yet so the only management strategy is the prevention of infection by wearing masks and following social distancing. Cleanliness, hygiene and quarantine measures are the key to stop any epidemic to pandemic and is known to human being throughout the history and it becomes more critical when global travelling is a norm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to evaluate the prevalence of mycobiota and aflatoxin (AF) B1 contamination in sesame seeds from rainfed and irrigated zones of the Punjab, Pakistan. For this purpose, 100 sesame seed samples were collected directly from the fields of major sesame-producing areas in rainfed and irrigated zones. The agar plate method was used for isolation of mycobiota, and thin-layer chromatography was used to determine AFB1 concentrations. Seed samples were then stored for 12 months. After 12 months, the seeds were again analyzed for mycobiota and AFB1 for comparison. All samples were positive for fungal growth under fresh and stored conditions. Twenty-one fungal species of 10 genera were isolated. Aspergillus flavus was the most prevalent contaminant found in fresh and stored sesame seeds from rainfed and irrigated zones, followed by Aspergillus niger, Alternaria alternata, and Fusarium oxysporum. The least prevalent fungi were Aspergillus ochraceus and Cladosporium oxysporum. Analysis revealed that 92% of fresh and 99% of stored seed samples were contaminated with AFB1. In the rainfed zone, 88% of fresh and 100% of stored seed samples were contaminated with AFB1, with mean concentrations of 15.74 and 33.8 ppb, respectively. In the irrigated zone, 96% of fresh and 98% of stored seed samples were contaminated with AFB1, with mean concentrations of 20.5 and 27.56 ppb, respectively. AFB1 concentrations >20 ppb were found in 20% of fresh and 100% of stored seeds samples from the rainfed zone and in 28% of fresh and 60% of stored samples from the irrigated zone and thus were not fit for human consumption as per the maximum limit (20 ppb) assigned by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This report is the first on the mycobiota and AFB1 contamination in sesame seeds from rainfed and irrigated zones of the Punjab, Pakistan. These baseline data are an initial step in the effort to deal with this significant food safety issue. Fresh and stored sesame seeds were positive for fungal growth. The leading contaminant in fresh and stored sesame seeds was Aspergillus flavus. Overall, 92% of fresh and 99% of stored seed samples were contaminated with AFB1. In the rainfed zone, 88% of fresh and 100% of stored samples were contaminated with AFB1. In the irrigated zone, 96% of fresh and 98% of stored samples were contaminated with AFB1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As many antagonistic plants are being continuously explored for their nematicidal potential against nematodes, therefore, in the present study two antagonistic plants viz. Cannabis sativa and Azadirachta indica at different doses viz. 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 g per kg of the soil were evaluated against Meloidogyne javanica on peach with the objective to curtail reliance on hazardous chemicals. Soil amendments of both the plants significantly reduced number of galls, eggmasses and eggs per eggmass on peach, root, soil, and total populations and reproduction factor of the nematode. Both the plants caused statistically similar reductions in these parameters at all the concentrations with few exceptions. However, the reductions caused by C. sativa were comparatively more than those by A. indica. The maximum reductions were observed at a dose of 15 g per kg of soil while the reductions were found to be the minimum with the lowest dose of 2.5 g per kg of soil. Similarly, the per cent reductions over control caused by both the plants were found to be dose dependent. As the concentration of the plant material increased, there was a corresponding decrease in the values of these parameters and the relationships were found to be inversely proportional. It is concluded from the present study that incorporation of C. sativa and A. indica in the soil as organic amendments can work very well as nematicides and can be successfully used for controlling root-knot nematodes replacing traditional chemical treatments and avoiding environmental pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultural practices are key tool for ecofriendly management of destructive pests in fruits and vegetables. Clipping, hoeing, mulching, crop rotation, intercropping and synchronization of sowing time are some most important cultural practices to control Leucinodes orbonalis in brinjal crop. The current study was planned to evaluate four different cultural practices against brinjal shoot and fruit borer in brinjal crop during two consecutive years 2018 and 2019 at two locations university research farm (URF) Koont and a farmer's filed Rawat, Rawalpindi including polythene mulching, hoeing, clipping and mulching + clipping as treatments. The results revealed that mulching + clipping reduced about 61 % and 60 % shoot infestation over control at URF Koont and Rawat respectively. Fruit infestation was decreased 67 % and 61 % in the same treatment with increase of 133% and 226% increase of marketable fruit yield over control at URF Koont and Rawat respectively. Maximum cost benefit ratio was also higher in clipping + mulching as compared with other three treatment. Clipping, hoeing and polythene mulching were significantly effective over control but statistically at par with each other. It is concluded that ecological pest management techniques specially adoption of cultural practices may perform better to mitigate the climate changes, market demands and reduction of reliance on chemical options to control Leucinodes orbonalis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee) causes severe crop yield losses. Utilization of the ecological approach through different sowing times might provide its long-term control and safety to the environment. In the present study, effect of four sowing dates was evaluated on the infestation of L. orbonalis on brinjal at two locations in the Pothwar region of Pakistan. The study revealed that sowing dates influenced infestation by brinjal shoot and fruit borer. Shoot infestation significantly varied on brinjal at both locations sown at different dates. The maximum average shoot infestation of 9.7% was observed on late sown crop (10th of April) while the minimum average shoot infestation (8.9%) was recoded on crop sown on 20th of March. Square infestation on brinjal plants sown at different times was at par at both the locations and was found slightly higher at farmer field. The maximum average fruit infestation (52.8 %) was observed at URF Koont on early sown crop (1st of March) while the minimum (46.3 %) was observed on crop sown on 20th of March. At Rawat, the maximum mature infestation (54.5%) was observed on late sown crop (30th of April) while the minimum mature fruit infestation (47.8%) was recorded on crop sown at 20th of March. Similarly, the percentage of damaged fruit was higher (54.1%) on crop sown at 30th of April at Rawat while the minimum damage of 49.6% was observed on the crop sown on 20th of March. At URF Koont, the percentage of damaged fruit was statistically at par among all the four treatments. Yield losses were statistically at par at URF Koont ranging from 24.6% to 25% in all the treatments. However, the minimum yield loss of 22% was recorded on crop sown at 20th of March. At URF Koont, the maximum yield loss of 17% was recorded on early sown crop (1st of March) while the minimum yield loss of 13.1% was observed on crop sown at 20th of March. It is therefore, concluded that change in sowing dates can reduce the pest infestation and result in the enhancement of yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Root-knot nematodes of the genus Meloidogyne badly affect crop production worldwide and cause huge yield losses. Among the known root-knot species, Meloidogyne incognita is by far the most destructive, widely distributed and the most dominant and prevalent. In the present study, the efficacy of a biological control agent, Trichoderma harzianum and an antagonistic plant, Azadirachta indica was tested against M. incognita on tomato. The antagonistic fungus and plant caused significant hatching inhibition and larval mortality of M. incognita. The hatching inhibition and mortality was the maximum at 100% concentrations of both the agents while the minimum inhibition and mortality was obtained at 25% concentration. No statistical difference was observed between T. harzianum and A. indica in causing hatching inhibition and larval mortality. Numbers of galls, egg masses and reproductive factor were reduced significantly as a result of A. indica and T. harzianum applications. The reductions in these parameters were more pronounced where both the agents were integrated and resulted to the maximum where both the agents were mixed at the highest concentrations. The reductions in galls, egg masses and reproductive factor were found inversely proportional to the concentrations of A. indica and T. harzianum. Similarly, all the concentrations of A. indica when integrated with T. harzianum increased plant height and fresh shoot weight significantly over control. The increase in these parameters was directly proportional to the concentrations of A. indica leaves and T. harzianum. A. indica amendments proved at par with those of T. harzianum. The maximum increases in these parameters were obtained where A. indica leaves were mixed at the rate of 50 g with 6 g of T. harzianum. The amendments also showed significant effects on root weight. The maximum decrease in root weight was observed where both A. indica and T. harzianum were mixed at the highest concentrations. The root weight decreased with an increase in concentration and was found inversely proportional. It is therefore, recommended that the integration of antagonistic plants with the antagonistic fungi may be useful for the better control of plant parasitic nematodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV) is a known devastating pathogen and menace threat to several important vegetables worldwide including Pakistan. This study was conducted to determine the incidence, distribution and genetic variability of CMV isolates infecting cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables in the Pothwar region of Pakistan, a rich region for vegetable production. Symptomatic leaf and fruit samples were subjected to double antibody sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) using polyclonal antibodies for CMV. Moreover, it was further characterized by Triple Antibody Sandwich ELISA (TAS-ELISA), molecular assays and genetic recombination. The pathogen was prevalent in all districts and detected in all 10 tested vegetables i.e. cucumber, round gourd, watermelon, melon, pumpkin, bitter gourd, ridge gourd, smooth gourd, chilli and tomato, with an average incidence ranging from 11.85% to 25.89%, with the highest incidence in district Attock (25.17%) followed by Rawalpindi (23.04%), Jhelum (18.57%), Chakwal (18.30%) and Islamabad (14.45%). Cucumber, tomato, watermelon and chilli were found to be most affected by CMV with an average disease incidence (D.I.) of 45.38%, 21.15%, 19.39% and 19.05%, respectively. Capsid protein (CP) cistron nucleotides based In silico restriction and Phylogenetic analyses revealed that among 10 Pakistani CMV under studied isolates; the four viz., AAJAC, AARpCu, AAHAWM and AACCu isolates were grouped as member of CMV subgroup IB and they shared 94.96% identity with each other while rest of the six isolates viz., AARCF, AARwCu, AARTF, AAHAPu, AAICu and AAJABG grouped in to CMV subgroup II with 92.8% identity among themselves. In recombination detection analysis, the Pakistani CMV isolate AAICu (MH119070) was found likely to be a recombinant between the Indian (X89652) and Pakistani (MH119068) isolates with recombinant breakpoints between 370th and 630th nucleotides. Further research is needed to comprehend the economic impact of the virus and breeding programs for screening of resistant genotypes as per recombinant strains and there is also a need to focus on training of farmer communities to manage disease through adaption of resistant cultivars and controlling vector populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The information on the interaction between root-knot nematodes and bacterial wilt is lacking in chili, therefore, in the present study, effects of Meloidogyne javanica and Ralstonia solanacearum were studied on chili singly and in combinations. Significant effects of M. javanica and R. solanacearum and their interaction were observed in case of shoot and root lengths and weights of chili. The mean lengths and weights of shoot and root varied significantly as a result of both the pathogens applied singly and in combinations. The reductions in these parameters were significantly higher when both the pathogens were applied simultaneously as compared to their sole applications. Similarly, at higher inoculum densities, the reductions were the maximum in all these parameters. Significant variations were observed in number of galls and egg masses per root system in response to both the pathogens applied individually and in combinations. Maximum numbers of galls and egg masses were observed where nematode was applied alone. Significant reductions in galls and egg masses were recorded where nematode and the bacterium were applied in combinations. At higher densities of both the pathogens, the reductions in these parameters were the maximum. The first wilt appearance was observed after 8 days in the treatment where both the pathogens were applied at their highest densities. The treatments where bacterium was applied individually at different densities, wilt took maximum days to appear as compared to the treatments where bacterium and nematodes were applied in combinations. Similarly, the incidence of bacterial wilt was lower where the nematode was absent. Minimum wilt incidence was recorded at the lowest density of R. solanacearum. The wilt incidence increased significantly when nematode was inoculated along with the bacterium and maximum incidence was recorded where both the pathogens were applied at their highest densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study documents the root‐knot nematodes (RKN) fauna of the Poonch division in Azad Jammu and Kashmir infecting vegetables. An overall prevalence of 40% of RKN was recorded. Of the four districts investigated, maximum prevalence was recorded in district Poonch with 59%, followed by Sudhnuti with 58%. The lowest prevalence of RKN was found in districts Bagh (29%) and Haveli (33%). Out of 15 vegetables investigated, RKN was found on five crops. The highest prevalence of 37.8% was recorded on okra, followed by 31.3% on cucumber and 17.5% on tomato. RKN was less prevalent on eggplant (8.3%) and beans (7.7%). Three RKN species, that is Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica and Meloidogyne arenaria, were found infecting the hosts. M. javanica was found to be the most prevalent followed by M. incognita and M. arenaria. This trend was found in all the districts. Overall prevalence of M. javanica as sole population was 9% and that of M. incognita was 2%. Meloidogyne arenaria was not found in any of the fields as sole population. The prevalence of M. incognita with M. javanica or M. arenaria as mixed populations was 8% and 5%, respectively, and that of M. javanica with M. arenaria was 4%. Similarly, all the three species prevailed as mixed populations in 12% of the fields in the division. The severity of RKN infections, measured as galling index, was found to be variable within each infected field (GI 2–9). Identification of RKN species was based on the morphology of perineal patterns and confirmed by molecular SCAR and CO1 makers based identification. In conclusion, RKN were distributed in the Poonch division and M. javanica was predominant. Cucumber, okra, tomato and eggplant were severely attacked by these nematodes warranting the adoption of stringent control strategies for their management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The structure, mode of action, and resistance to the streptogramin and oxazolidinone antibiotics- two distinct classes of antibiotics that have recently brought to market for treatment of bacterial infections- are described and also, a brief discussion of some new and old classes of antibiotics that block translation is presented. Streptogramin antibiotics are natural products produced by various members of the Streptomyces genus.