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Wildlife translocations are an important conservation tool but can be challenging for the animals. For translocations to be successful, animals must adjust to their release landscape. Investigating how animals acclimate to their release landscapes can improve post‐release monitoring and inform about the management needs of translocated populations. We investigated movements and resource selection dynamics of 106 elk (Cervus canadensis) during the first 6–8 years following their release to Missouri, USA in 2011–2013. We observed evidence of spatial acclimation as determined by cessation of changes in resource selection together with monthly range sizes and fidelity of individual elk. Females showed faster evidence of acclimation in their movements following release than males. Although range fidelity for both sexes stabilized within approximately seven months, range size stabilized within approximately three months for females and stabilization began within approximately 11 months for males. Selection for multiple resources by elk also largely stabilized within their first year following release. A simple refuge‐forage trade‐off alone did not explain acclimation in resource selection. Elk selected for high‐quality food plots across the temporal extent of restoration regardless of time since release, whereas their selection for cover resources during summer increased after elk acclimated. Together, spatial acclimation generally lagged behind physiological responses observed in this system, adding to the increasing evidence that translocated animals display acclimation patterns across trait‐specific time periods. Our approach demonstrates the utility of accounting for acclimation effects across multiple spatial response metrics for improving post‐release monitoring, evaluation, and management of restored wildlife populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife translocations, which involve the introduction of naive hosts into new environments with novel pathogens, invariably pose an increased risk of disease. The meningeal worm Parelaphostrongylus tenuis is a nematode parasite of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which serves as its primary host and rarely suffers adverse effects from infection. Attempts to restore elk (Cervus canadensis) to the eastern US have been hampered by disease caused by this parasite. Using DNA sequence data from mitochondrial and nuclear genes, we examined the hypothesis that elk translocated within the eastern US could be exposed to novel genetic variants of P. tenuis by detailing the genetic structure among P. tenuis taken from white-tailed deer and elk at a source (Kentucky) and a release site (Missouri). We found high levels of diversity at both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA in Missouri and Kentucky and a high level of differentiation between states. Our results highlight the importance of considering the potential for increased disease risk from exposure to novel strains of parasites in the decision-making process of a reintroduction or restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflict with humans is one of the primary reasons why large carnivore populations are declining worldwide. Rates of human‐carnivore conflict (HCC) are particularly high in East Africa, where human settlements tend to surround protected areas, maximizing potential for human‐carnivore interactions. Despite extensive HCC research in this region, HCC persists and carnivore populations continue to decline. Evident disconnects between HCC research and conservation action, management practices and policy formation have been cited as mechanisms associated with these trends. We conducted a literature review to determine the extent to which HCC research in East Africa is actionable within the context of management and policy formation. We evaluated 36 papers for co‐production, interdisciplinary collaboration, applied or theoretical publication and stakeholder engagement. Many were published by co‐authors in academia (63.8%) and collaborative efforts between academics and non‐governmental organizations (25.0%), with limited representation outside these sectors. Collaboration with disciplines outside the natural sciences, specifically the social and political sciences (both 2.8%), was also uncommon although humans were the primary topic of study in 28% of papers. Moreover, while many papers were published in applied journals (86%), few explicitly stated policy and management objectives. Stakeholder engagement was mostly in the form of surveys and questionnaires rather than direct involvement in the research process. Our review indicates that HCC research currently lacks strong evidence of actionability and we provide recommendations for improving the practical salience of conservation research. Currently, HCC research in East Africa lacks strong evidence of actionability. There is greater need for interdisciplinary collaboration, collaboration with management practitioners and policy makers, and continued community engagement in HCC research. Adjusting HCC research to utilize these components will only serve to improve the success of conservation action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A species' habitat niche width informs its position on the generalist-specialist continuum, which is central to life-history theory and crucial to conservation planning. However, assessments of niche width are often based on local-scale studies or qualitative descriptions rather than broad, quantitative assessments conducted in heterogeneous landscapes. Here, we show how broad-scale, hierarchical occupancy models can clarify a species' niche width and degree of habitat specialism by evaluating the woodland-specialist classification of the European pine marten Martes martes. We deployed 526 camera-trap stations at 27 sites throughout a vast extent (~50 000 km2) in Scotland and modeled pine marten occupancy as a function of habitat characteristics using a hierarchical Bayesian analysis. Our model was flexible to trap happiness due to baiting at camera traps and accounted for spatial autocorrelation among and imperfect detection at camera-trap stations. We detected a positive association between pine marten occupancy probability and wooded habitats. However, pine marten occupancy probability was also high in numerous non-wooded habitats, including agricultural land, heather and heather grassland, semi-natural grassland and areas near anthropogenic structures. Our study is the first to record high pine marten occupancy in open habitats at broad spatial scales and thereby corroborates recent smaller scale indications that pine martens are more of a habitat generalist than previously thought. Our results guide ongoing conservation efforts by identifying that pine martens are not strict woodland specialists, but rather inhabit a mosaic of habitat types in the landscape. More broadly, our case study exemplifies how coupling hierarchical occupancy models with large-scale experimental designs can clarify a species' niche width and associated position on the generalist-specialist continuum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecotourism has motivated efforts to reintroduce lions ( P anthera leo) to landscapes where they were not previously common. In 2002, four lions were reintroduced into the fenced Tembe Elephant Park, South Africa to improve ecotourism opportunities, but lions potentially compete for habitat with humans and endemic herbivores of conservation concern. We developed a population-level resource selection function to map the relative probability of lion occurrence throughout Tembe Elephant Park to predict the spatial distribution of potential conflicts. In winter, high relative probability of lion occurrence spatially overlapped with Muzi reedbeds/hygrophilous grassland habitat, which is where humans gather natural resources. Comparatively, we found no spatial overlap with sand forest habitat used by endemic herbivores. The results were opposite in summer, with lion occurrence overlapping sand forest habitat and no predicted overlap with Muzi reedbeds/hygrophilous grassland habitat. During spring and autumn, the highest relative probability of lion occurrence spatially overlapped both Muzi reedbeds/hygrophilous grassland and sand forest habitats. These results show that lions might compete with humans in winter, spring and autumn and with endemic herbivores in all seasons but winter. Despite the success of reserve fencing in limiting human-lion conflicts, we show that communities that reintroduce carnivores continue to balance relative reward, associated with ecotourism, and risks to human safety and species of conservation concern. We discuss the importance of dynamic management practices that ensure temporal segregation between humans and lions within specific habitat types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution of suitable rest sites is considered to be a key determinant of spatial patterns in animal activity. However, it is not immediately evident which landscape features satisfy rest site requirements or how these sites are configured within the home range. We used Global Positioning System ( GPS)/accelerometer telemetry to investigate rest site selection at the home-range scale for northern tamanduas T amandua mexicana on Barro Colorado Island ( BCI), Panama. We developed models specifying each tamandua as the individual experimental unit and averaged coefficients to produce population-level estimates. Tamanduas had on average 17.8 (± 8.1) rest sites within their home range and used 1.36 (± 0.51) on any given day. These rest sites tended to be located in the core of tamandua home ranges, with active locations associated with the periphery of the home range. Rest sites were positively associated with (1) a high density of A ttalea butyracea palm trees; (2) elevation; (3) tall vegetation. There was a slight negative relationship between the distribution of rest sites and slope, and no apparent relationship between rest site selection and relative distance to forest canopy gaps. From focal animal observations, we identified that tamandua rest sites were typically located in trees (90%), with 25% (12 of 49) occurring in palms. We contend that northern tamanduas on BCI selected vegetated arboreal rest sites because of reduced likelihood of detection from terrestrial predators in these sites. Our models identified considerable individual variation in rest site selection, which suggests that the practice of pooling individuals and fitting models at an aggregate level may be inappropriate for certain types of habitat selection research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fences can both enhance and detract from the conservation of wildlife, and many detrimental impacts are associated with creating physical barriers. By contrast, virtual fences can restrict, control or minimize animal movement without the creation of physical barriers, and present key benefits over traditional fences, including: (1) no need for construction, maintenance or removal of traditional fences; (2) rapid modification of boundaries both temporally and spatially based on specific conservation concerns; (3) application of novel conservation approaches for wildlife that integrate monitoring, research and management; and (4) social-psychological benefits that may increase support for conservation. We review the various types of sensory, biological and mechanical virtual fences, and the potential benefits and costs associated with fully integrating virtual fences into protected area management and wildlife conservation. The recent development of real-time virtual fences represents the potential for a new 'virtual management' era in wildlife conservation, where it is possible to initiate management actions promptly in response to real-time data. Wide-scale application of virtual fences faces considerable technological and logistical constraints; however, virtual fences are increasingly popular and soon will offer realistic management strategies for both terrestrial and avian wildlife conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Managers of reintroduced wildlife commonly encounter behavioral problems post-release that have been linked to physiological condition and elevated stress hormone concentrations. However, there is uncertainty about the generality of a stress response among populations, factors influencing the intensity of the response and the amount of time needed to physiologically acclimatize. We evaluated the relationship of temporal, climatic and social factors to stress hormone concentrations in five African elephant ( Loxodonta africana) populations following reintroduction. We determined fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations ( FGMs) in 1567 fecal samples collected from elephants reintroduced to five fenced reserves with differing reintroduction histories in South Africa during 2000-2006. Variation in FGMs across the five reserves was best explained by the number of years that elapsed since initial release. Compared with FGMs 1 year after release, FGMs were 10% lower 10 years after release and 40% lower 24 years after release. Across all reserves, FGMs were consistently highest in the dry season, although daily and monthly temperature and rainfall were not as important as other factors. FGMs did not vary solely in relationship to reserve size or elephant density. Our findings suggest that regardless of reintroduction site conditions, elephants and likely other species subject to reintroduction require an extended period of time to physiologically acclimatize to their new surroundings. Managers should prepare for prolonged behavioral and physiological consequences of long-term elevated stress responses following reintroduction, such as restricted space use and aggressive behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT During the previous century, the wetland area in the lower Missouri River alluvial valley was reduced by 39% because of river channelization and bank stabilization projects. The Great Flood of 1993 reversed the trend of wetland loss by creating 466 new wetlands in the alluvial valley between Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri. We estimated amphibian occupancy, detection probability and number of species exhibiting evidence of reproduction in eight flood-created and 16 pre-flood existing wetlands from 1996 through 1998. We also evaluated whether hydroperiod (the number of days any water was present in a wetland from 20 February through 31 August) and distance to river predicted those values. Detection probabilities for adult amphibian species were relatively constant across years and ranged from 0.013 [Great Plains toad ( Anaxyrus cognatus)] to 0.280 [Woodhouse's toad ( Anaxyrus woodhousii woodhousii)]. Occupancy of adult amphibians differed across years and was not correlated with habitat features. Estimated occupancy probabilities for amphibian species ranged from 0.126 [Plains spadefoot ( Spea bombifrons)] to 0.896 [boreal chorus frog ( Pseudacris maculata)]. Almost double the number of amphibian species showed evidence of reproduction in existing wetlands (wetlands created before the Great Flood of 1993) when compared with that in flood-created wetlands. Similarly, temporary wetlands had nearly double the number of amphibian species showing evidence of reproduction when compared with permanent wetlands. Finally, the highest number of species showed evidence of reproduction in wetlands with spring-summer hydroperiods between 135 and 140 days. All these relationships suggest that the invasion and persistence of predators in wetlands negatively influence amphibian reproduction. If the Missouri River is allowed to reconnect with the alluvial valley, more predators may be introduced into wetlands, leading to reduced amphibian occupancy and reproduction. However, this connection will not likely occur over the entire alluvial valley and, therefore, should not adversely impact amphibians that find refuge in higher-elevation, non-connected regions of the alluvial valley. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop raiding is one of the most common forms of human-elephant conflict. Deterring elephants from raiding crops requires an understanding of the factors influencing the behavior of the individuals involved. We collected fecal samples from five group ranches in southern Kenya where crop-raiding incidents had occurred ( n=10) and two protected areas, Amboseli National Park ( n=24) and Maasai Mara National Reserve ( n=20). We used molecular sexing to sex the individuals and radioimmunoassay kits to determine the level of glucocorticoid metabolites (i.e. stress hormones) in their dung. All crop-raiding individuals were male and had a significantly elevated concentration of glucocorticoid metabolites as compared with the Amboseli elephants ( W=12, P=0.0005). We detected no significant difference between Maasai Mara elephants and either Amboseli or the crop-raiding elephants when just males were compared. Our results suggest that crop raiding may be related to stress in elephants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantive changes to physical habitat in the Lower Missouri River, resulting from intensive management, have been implicated in the decline of pallid ( Scaphirhynchus albus) and shovelnose ( S. platorynchus) sturgeon. To aid in habitat rehabilitation efforts, we evaluated habitat selection of gravid, female shovelnose sturgeon during the spawning season in two sections (lower and upper) of the Lower Missouri River in 2005 and in the upper section in 2007. We fit discrete choice models within an information theoretic framework to identify selection of means and variability in three components of physical habitat. Characterizing habitat within divisions around fish better explained selection than habitat values at the fish locations. In general, female shovelnose sturgeon were negatively associated with mean velocity between them and the bank and positively associated with variability in surrounding depths. For example, in the upper section in 2005, a 0.5 m s decrease in velocity within 10 m in the bank direction increased the relative probability of selection 70%. In the upper section fish also selected sites with surrounding structure in depth (e.g., change in relief). Differences in models between sections and years, which are reinforced by validation rates, suggest that changes in habitat due to geomorphology, hydrology, and their interactions over time need to be addressed when evaluating habitat selection. Because of the importance of variability in surrounding depths, these results support an emphasis on restoring channel complexity as an objective of habitat restoration for shovelnose sturgeon in the Lower Missouri River. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasites and glucocorticoid hormones interact and affect a variety of processes within vertebrates, such as immune system function and reproduction. The nature of the relationship between parasite infection and glucocorticoid levels has received relatively little attention among free-ranging animals and results of experimental research in natural settings are equivocal. We conducted a parasite-reduction experiment to determine if reductions in nematodes or ectoparasites affect levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) in adult raccoons. Individual raccoons were randomly assigned to a parasite-reduction treatment (ivermectin injection and Frontline Plus® application) or control group (saline injection) and recaptured within 30 days to assess treatment-related differences in parasitism and FGM levels. Treated animals had reduced nematode and ectoparasite communities. The most common and energetically expensive ectoparasite of raccoons in the region, the American dog tick, was reduced five-fold from an average of 19.3 ± 2.5 ( se) to 3.4 ± 8 ticks per animal, and was unable to feed to repletion on treated animals. The prevalence of four out of seven nematode species was significantly lower in treated versus control animals; prevalence of these four nematodes ranged from 0 to 19% among treated animals and from 21 to 55% among control animals. The parasite infracommunity was also significantly reduced; the average number of nematode species per individual was 2.5 ± 0.3 in treated animals and 1.1 ± 0.2 in control animals, and the average number of ectoparasite species per individual was 2.3 ± 0.1 on treated animals and 1.1 ± 0.12 on control animals. No differences in FGM values were observed within individuals or between treatment and control groups following parasite-reduction treatments, indicating that the observed reductions in nematodes and ectoparasites had no effect on FGM levels of raccoons across the time frame of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noninvasive fecal glucocorticoid analysis has tremendous potential as a means of assessing stress associated with environmental disturbance in wildlife. However, interspecific variation in excreted glucocorticoid metabolites requires careful selection of the antibody used in their quantification. We compared four antibodies for detecting the major fecal cortisol metabolites in yellow baboons following (3)H cortisol administration, ACTH challenge, and HPLC separation of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites. The most effective antibody (ICN corticosterone RIA; Cat. No. 07-120102) demonstrated relatively high cross-reactivities to the major cortisol metabolites present in feces during peak excretion, following both radiolabel infusion and ACTH challenge. This same antibody also detected increased fecal glucocorticoid metabolites after ACTH administration in the African elephant, black rhinoceros, Roosevelt elk, gerenuk, scimitar-horned oryx, Alaskan sea otter, Malayan sun bear, cheetah, clouded leopard, longtailed macaque, and northern spotted owl. Results suggest that (1) fecal glucocorticoid assays reliably detect endogenous changes in adrenal activity of a diverse array of species and (2) where comparisons were made, the ICN corticosterone antibody generally was superior to other antibodies for measuring glucocorticoid metabolites in feces., (Copyright 2000 Academic Press.)

Ten trapped Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) were successfully immobilized with a combination of 500 mg Telazol and 60 mg xylazine hydrochloride (HCl) from 9 July to 25 August 1993 in Custer State Park, South Dakota (USA). Mean (SD) dosages of 2.5 (0.6) mg/kg Telazol and 0.3 (0.1) mg/kg xylazine HCl, respectively, were administered, resulting in a mean (SD) induction time of 4.6 (0.8) min. Induction time varied with weight and dosage. Respiratory rate (breaths/min) increased following injection of Telazol and xylazine HCl and remained elevated or continued to increase through 10 min post-injection and then declined. There were no mortalities in this study. Forty mg of yohimbine HCl was used as an antagonist in eight elk, resulting in a mean (SD) recovery time of 14.0 (9.9) min when administered intravenously (n = 6), and 124.7 (9.5) min when given intramuscularly (n = 2). Recovery time varied with weight and dosage of yohimbine. Elk given 2.1 to 2.6 mg/kg Telazol and 0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg xylazine HCl responded to yohimbine HCl when administered intravenously.