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The purpose of this study is to investigate which factors that influence cloud adoption and contribute to existing research about cloud computing. Ten hypotheses were derived from the Technological, Organizational, and Environmental (TOE) framework combined with the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) framework. Data was collected using a questionnaire and 91 individuals working in several industries and different countries participated in the study. The research model was tested using a quantitative approach using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The main factors that were identified as drivers for adoption of cloud computing are: digital strategy, competitive pressure, trading partner support, standardization, firm size and network and collaboration. These findings have important implications and great value to the research field, companies and cloud providers as they could formulate better strategies for a successful cloud adoption. The study also provides a new approach in research about cloud adoption where the type of enterprise system migrated to the cloud is taken into consideration. Findings in this study points towards system specific requirements influencing the adoption rate.

The solubility of polymers depends on how well the parameters of the polymers and solvents used resemble each other. The more similar the parameters are, the more likely the polymers are to be dissolved. Hansen´s solubility parameters (HSP) tells us how dispersion forces, polar forces and hydrogen bonding influences the structure of the polymers and thereby their solubility. To be able to manufacture effective organic polymer solar cells in the future, we need more knowledge of how polymers and organic solvents interact with each other. This is an essay on how you could gather more knowledge of how primarily the polymer Poly{[N,N′-bis(2-octyldodecyl)-naphthalene-1,4,5,8-bis(dicarboximide)-2,6-diyl]-alt-5,5′-(2,2′-bithiophene)} , (N2200), but also the polymer Poly[2,3-bis-(3-octyloxyphenyl) quinoxaline-5,8-diyl-alt-thiophene-2,5-diyl], (TQ1) dissolves in different organic solvent blends. It is also a test on using the computer software Hansen´s Solubility Parameters in Practice (HSPiP), to estimate the HSP:s for the polymers and the polymer blend. The HSPiP was good at estimating the Hansen solubility parameters for the solubility test on N2200. The software´s drawing tool in the do it yourself- part (DIY) that is used to create a structure code-string (SMILES) for the polymer, did not work as well in this project. The Optimizer in HSPiP made good suggestions of organic solvent blends for N2200 and TQ1, that dissolved the polymers. o-Xylene and tetrahydronaphthalene were the solvents that dissolved N2200 in the solubility test in 24 h and 50 ֯C and among the organic solvent blends it was toluene/1-methylnaphthalene, tetrahydronaphthalene/methyl acetate, tetrahydronaphthalene/o-Xylene and tetrahydronaphthalene/2-methyltetrahydrofuran that were able to dissolve the polymers in the concentrations of 10.0 mg/ml. N2200 dissolved very well up to 10.0 mg/ml in the calculated solvent blends but on the other hand, the samples became very viscous at that concentration and hardly fluent, if fluent at all. It was more difficult to find organic solvent blends that could dissolve N2200 than it was for TQ1. TQ1 dissolved in all solvent ratios that dissolved N2200. Sammanfattning Löslighet hos polymerer beror på hur löslighetsparametrarna hos polymeren och det lösningsmedel man använder, liknar varandra. Ju mer löslighetsparametrarna liknar varandra, desto bättre löser sig polymeren i lösningsmedlet. Hansen´s löslighetsparametrar (HSP) talar om hur dispersionskrafter, polära krafter och vätebindningar påverkar strukturer hos polymerer och därigenom deras löslighet. För att kunna tillverka effektiva organiska polymera solceller i framtiden, behöver vi mer kunskap i hur polymerer och organiska lösningsmedel interagerar med varandra. Detta är en uppsats i hur man kan gå tillväga för att ta reda på mer om hur främst polymeren Poly{[N,N′-bis(2-octyldodecyl)-naphthalene-1,4,5,8-bis(dicarboximide)-2,6-diyl]-alt-5,5′-(2,2′-bithiophene)} , (N2200), men också polymeren Poly[2,3-bis-(3-octyloxyphenyl) quinoxaline-5,8-diyl-alt-thiophene-2,5-diyl], (TQ1) löser sig i olika blandningar av organiska lösningsmedel. Det är också ett försök till att använda dataprogrammet, Hansen´s Solubility Parameters in Practice (HSPiP), för att estimera löslighet hos polymererna och polymerblandningen. Det visade sig att HSPiP, var bra på att estimera Hansens löslighetsparametrar för löslighetstestet på N2200. Programmets ritverktyg i DIY (do it yourself/gör det själv), för att skapa SMILES-kod (kod för den ritade molekylens struktur) för polymeren, visade sig vara mindre bra. Optimeraren i HSPiP visade sig kunna föreslå organiska lösningsmedelsblandningar för N2200 och TQ1 som kunde lösa polymererna. o-Xylene och tetrahydronaftalen var de som löste N2200 i löslighetstestet på 24 h med 50 ֯C och av blandningarna var det toluen/1-methylnaftalen, tetrahydronaftalen/metylacetat, tetrahydronaftalen/o-Xylene och tetrahydronaftalene/2-metyltetrahydrofuran som kunde lösa polymererna i koncentrationer av 10.0 mg/ml. N2200 löste sig bra ända upp till 10.0 mg/ml för de beräknade lösningsmedelsblandningarna men däremot blev proverna väldigt viskösa i den koncentrationen och knappt flytande, om alls flytande. Det var svårare att hitta organiska lösningsmedelsblandningar som fungerade för N2200 medan TQ1 kunde lösa sig i allt som fungerade för N2200.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDDs /PCDFs) have great potential for atmospheric long-range transport and deposition. The atmosphere is an important pathway for these contaminants to both aquatic and terrestrial environments. The Swedish national monitoring program for organic contaminants in air and precipitation includes, except PCDD/PCDFs, a large number of different substances/group of substances which differ in chemical and physical properties which not only affect their behaviour in the atmosphere and the deposition process but also the requirements on sampling methods used. This leads to great demands on the type of deposition sampler to be used in a monitoring program where the aim is to monitor several different organic substances and compromises are necessary when choosing sampler type. The sampling program lasted for one year with 4 sampling periods with a sampling duration of 3 months. This gives results showing seasonal variation and the opportunity to estimate the annual deposition. The overall results from this study show that: • Differences in measured deposition fluxes were found between the two samplers with a variation in magnitude between different sampling occasions. A greater amount of dioxins/furans in deposition was measured with the MONAS sampler at three out of the four periods. • The annual dioxin/furan deposition was about 25 % higher with the MONAS sampler compared to the IVL sampler, when LOD (limit of detection) was replaced with zero for all non-detected congeners in the sum of the congeners. • The results from the sampling comparison for the two samplers gave a difference of 25% on annual basis which should be assessed in relation to the given analytical uncertainty which was +/-29% for all samples. The results found here are in agreement with other comparison studies when deposition samplers with different sampling characteristics were used (Brorström-Lundén, 1995). From this and other studies we can conclude that sampling of dioxins/furans as well as for other POPs gives different deposition fluxes when using samplers with different sampling characteristics. The collection efficiency differs not only among e.g. different congeners but also between sampling occasions which differ in ambient conditions such as amounts of precipitation, ambient air temperature and atmospheric particle concentrations. The choice of the type of deposition sampler to be used must therefore depend on the purpose of the measurements and the results should be discussed in relation to the sampling methods. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDDs /PCDFs) have great potential for atmospheric long-range transport and deposition. The atmosphere is an important pathway for these contaminants to both aquatic and terrestrial environments. The Swedish national monitoring program for organic contaminants in air and precipitation includes, except PCDD/PCDFs, a large number of different substances/group of substances which differ in chemical and physical properties which not only affect their behaviour in the atmosphere and the deposition process but also the requirements on sampling methods used. This leads to great demands on the type of deposition sampler to be used in a monitoring program where the aim is to monitor several different organic substances and compromises are necessary when choosing sampler type. The sampling program lasted for one year with 4 sampling periods with a sampling duration of 3 months. This gives results showing seasonal variation and the opportunity to estimate the annual deposition. The overall results from this study show that: • Differences in measured deposition fluxes were found between the two samplers with a variation in magnitude between different sampling occasions. A greater amount of dioxins/furans in deposition was measured with the MONAS sampler at three out of the four periods. • The annual dioxin/furan deposition was about 25 % higher with the MONAS sampler compared to the IVL sampler, when LOD (limit of detection) was replaced with zero for all non-detected congeners in the sum of the congeners. • The results from the sampling comparison for the two samplers gave a difference of 25% on annual basis which should be assessed in relation to the given analytical uncertainty which was +/-29% for all samples. The results found here are in agreement with other comparison studies when deposition samplers with different sampling characteristics were used (Brorström-Lundén, 1995). From this and other studies we can conclude that sampling of dioxins/furans as well as for other POPs gives different deposition fluxes when using samplers with different sampling characteristics. The collection efficiency differs not only among e.g. different congeners but also between sampling occasions which differ in ambient conditions such as amounts of precipitation, ambient air temperature and atmospheric particle concentrations. The choice of the type of deposition sampler to be used must therefore depend on the purpose of the measurements and the results should be discussed in relation to the sampling methods. The overall aim of this study is to compare two different types of deposition samplers for sampling of PCDDs/PCDFs. These two samplers, the IVL-sampler and the MONAS sampler, have quite different sampling characteristics. In addition, brominated dioxins/furans were included in the measurements in order to get an idea of their occurrence in deposition at the Swedish west coast. Den här rapporten finns endast på engelska. Svensk sammanfattning finns i rapporten.

On behalf of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Dr. Lisa Lundin and Dr. Stina Jansson at the Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, has conducted this desktop study. The main aim of this desktop study was to provide a compilation of the current state of knowledge of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), dibenzofurans (PCDF), polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDE), hexabromocyclodecane (HBCD), and perfluoroctanesulphonate (PFOS) with regard to their degradation efficiency in advanced solid waste incinerators (ASWI). The objective was also to assess if more support is needed to determinethe degradation efficiency of these compounds in ASWIs.

Hushållens bidrag av tvättvatten från textiltvätt till de kommunala avloppsreningsverken uppskattas till ca 2% av det totala volymflödet. Registerdata över kemikalier som används vid tillverkning av textilier/kläder samt analyser av tvättvatten visar att textilfibrer, mikroplastfibrer och många miljöstörande ämnen når våra reningsverk via textiltvätt. Dessa fibrer och kemiska ämnen kan bidra till förorening av avloppsreningsslam som används för gödsling av åkermark eller av vattenmiljö nedströms reningsverken. Ett av Sveriges miljömål är En Giftfri Miljö och dess delmål innefattar bl.a. information om farliga ämnen i varor (Ds 2012:23). Textilier är en av de varugrupper som Miljömålberedningen föreslagit (SOU 2012:38) bli föremål för ett regeringsuppdrag avseende innehåll av farliga ämnen och riskbegränsande åtgärder samt frivillig miljömärkning. I det svenska miljömålsystemet ingår också generationsmål om att materialkretsloppen skall vara så fria från farliga ämnen som möjligt och att våra konsumtionsmönster av varor ska ge så små hälso- och miljöproblem som möjligt även i varornas tillverkningsländer utanför Sverige. Generationsmålet innebär att svensk politik behöver ta hänsyn till den miljö- och hälsopåverkan som svensk konsumtion orsakar i andra länder. EU:s ramdirektiv för avfall (2008/96/EG) har vidare slagit fast en avfallshierarki som sätter återanvändning av uttjänta varor, t. ex. kläder, före materialåtervinning av avfall. Syfte Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka i vilken utsträckning som vattentvätt av fem klädtyper (t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, bomullsjeans, arbetsbyxor, fleecetröjor samt allvädersjackor) bidrar till förekomsten av miljögifter i slam samt i utgående vatten från representativt utvalda svenska reningsverk. Utförande Kläder av fem olika klädtyper, enligt specifikation från naturvårdsverket (baserat på en tidigare studie av Swerea) köptes in från affärer i Umeå under januari 2014. Det var 8 st t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, 3 st bomullsjeans, 2 st arbetsbyxor, 8 st fleecetröjor samt 3 st allvädersjackor. Kläderna tvättades i en vanlig tvättmaskin 2 gånger efter varandra utan att torka mellan och allt tvättvatten samlades upp. Delprov av tvättvattnet togs ut och analyserades för 126 utvalda ämnena på tre olika laboratorier (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). Ämnena var processkemikalier såsom pentaklorfenol, och triklosan, funktionskemikalier såsom ftalater och organofosfater samt oönskade kemikalier såsom dioxiner, klorfenoler och klorbensener. 2 Resultat Studien visar på att det mängdmässigt främst är funktionskemikalier som släpper från kläderna vid tvätt. Det här var väntat då dessa kemikalier är avsiktligt och oftast inte kemiskt bundet till tyget. Processkemikalier avges i mindre mängd och oönskade kemikalier såsom till exempel klorerade fenoler och bensener hittades i väldigt små mängder i tvättvattnet oavsett vilken typ av klädesplagg som tvättats. Vare sig processkemikalierna eller de oönskade kemikalierna borde finnas i plaggen och därför var det väntat att dessa kemikalier inte skulle hittas i samma utsträckning som funktionskemikalierna. Om man ser till detektionsfrekvensen, d.v.s. hur ofta de ämnen som ingår i en ämnesklass påträffas, blir bilden delvis en annan. Mer än 75% av de funktionskemikalier (38 av 50), ca 50% av funktionskemikalierna (26 av 49) och ca. 30% av processkemikalierna (8 av 27) detekterades i tvättvattenproverna. T-tröjor och skaljackorna var de klädtyper som avgav störst mängd kemikalier per kg 47 mg/kg (0.005% w/w) för t-tröjor följt av 23 mg/kg (0.002% w/w) för skaljackor. Jeans, arbetsbyxor och fleecetröjor släppte mycket mindre mängd kemikalier 0.001, 0.001 and 0.0005% vid tvätt till tvättvattnet. De fem klädtyperna släppte alla bisfenol AF, organofosfater, ftalater, formaldehyd, bromerade och klorerade fenoler samt klorerade bensener till tvättvattnet vid de två första tvättarna. Några föreningar som inte kunde detekteras i tvättvattnet var 4 stycken siloxaner, 9 stycken olika aniliner och majoriteten av de 17 dioxinerna och furanerna som ingick i studien. T-tröjor släppte mer textilfibrer (0,85 mg/kg) jämfört med de andra klädtyperna. De andra klädtyperna släppte betydlig mindre fibrer vid tvätt: jeans 0,46 mg/kg, skaljackor 0,02 mg/kg, arbetsbyxor 0,07 mg/kg och fleecetröjor 0,1 mg/kg. Diskussion Om man tar hänsyn till den årliga användningsvolymen av de olika klädestyperna avger t-tröjorna den största mängden kemikalier (469 kg funktionella kemikalier, 0,5 kg processkemikalier och 0,07 kg oönskade kemikalier) vid de två första tvättarna av plaggen. Arbetsbyxor var den klädestyp som släppte minst kemikalier (30 kg funktionella kemikalier, 7 kg processkemikalier och 0,9 g oönskade kemikalier). Ftalater och organofosfater frigjordes i stora mängder från kläderna (302 kg och 7,6 kg) och bidrar med 50% respektive 5% vardera till vad som återfinns i utgående vatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken. Klorfenoler och perfluorerade ämnen frigjordes i betydligt mindre mängder (430 g och 300 g) men bidrar i teorin med mer (167% respektive 223%) än vad som återfinns i utgåendevatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken för respektive grupp, vilket är orealistiskt. Brister i dataunderlaget eller degradering av föroreningar i reningsprocessen kan vara möjliga orsaker till överskattningen. Det är dock klart att tvätt av kläder ger ett betydande bidrag till vad som återfinns i reningsverksvatten och slam. 3 Slutsatser Kemikalier som är förbjudna enligt t ex Reach ska naturligtvis inte förekomma i kläder. Trots det så hittas de ändå ibland vid inspektion. Det är ett stort problem eftersom kemikalierna fortfarande kan vara lagliga att använda i visa länder. Exempelvis är det förbjudet att använda arylaminer inom EU, ändå återfinner vi en av dessa 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane i tvättvatten från alla typer av kläder i denna studie. Idag sker produktion av kläder över hela världen och det är svårt att få information om vilka kemikalier som har använts för ett visst plagg. Denna spårbarhet skulle behöva förbättras. I den här studien har vi hittat 72 av 126 föreningar, alla icke-naturliga föreningar, i tvättvattnet. De föreningar som frigjordes i störst mängder till tvättvattnet i den här studien var BPS, ftalater (DBP, BBP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organofosfater (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) och formaldehyd. Med hänsyn taget till nettotillförseln av nya kläder kommer den mängden kemikalier på årlig basis som avges från nya kläder som tvättas de två första gångerna att vara betydande. Även om en del av de föreningar som avges från kläderna kommer att brytas ner under behandlingen av avloppsvattnet i avloppsreningsverken så kommer många av dem att hamna i det utgående vattnet eller i slammet. Dessa kommer hamna i recipienten eller där slam används för att tillföra näringsämnen. Fortsatt arbete För att få en ännu bättre bild av hur mycket kemikalier som frigörs från kläder vid tvätt skulle det vara intressant att studera fler klädtyper. Det skulle också vara av intresse att analysera kläderna i sig för att kunna avgöra hur stor andel av det som finns i kläderna som avges vid tvätt, men också vad som finns kvar i kläderna när de så småningom blir textilavfall. Slutligen skulle det vara intressant att genom så kallad "non-target analysis" av både kläder och tvättvatten få veta vilka andra föreningar som förekommer i både kläder och tvättvatten. Rätt använt skulle "non-target anaysis" kunna fånga upp ett brett spektrum av kemikalier och ge en "totalbild" av substansflödet från textilier, via tvättvatten och reningsverk, till olika recipienter. Water from household laundry has been estimated to make up about 2% of the total volume flowing into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Records of the chemicals used in the manufacture of textiles/clothing and analyses of both washed clothes and laundry wastewater indicate that a large number of environmentally harmful substances can potentially reach treatment plants. These substances, including fibers and micro plastics fromlaundry, may contribute to the pollution of sewage sludge used for fertilization of arable land, or pollute the receiving waters downstream of wastewater treatment plants. Textiles are one of the groups of consumer goods that the Environmental Objectives Committee proposed (SOU 2012: 38) be subject to a government mandate regarding the use of hazardous chemicals, environmental risk reduction measures and voluntary eco-labeling. The government has also decided (Ds 2012: 23) on interim measures aimed at removing toxic material from the environment, including providing information on hazardous substances in clothing. The Swedish environmental objectives system also includes the so-called "Generation target", that states that material life cycles should be as free as possible from hazardous substances and that consumption of goods should produce as few health and environmental problems as possible, including in all the countries where they were manufactured. The Generation target means that the Swedish government needs to take into account environmental and health impacts that Swedish consumption may cause in other countries. The EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/96 / EC) defines a waste hierarchy that puts the recycling of old products, such as clothing, before the recycling of waste. This study may inform those working on developing such directives. Aim The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which laundering of five types of clothing (cotton t-shirts, cotton jeans, work trousers, fleece sweaters and weatherproof jackets) contributes to the presence of toxic pollutants in sludge and effluent water from a representative sample of treatment plants. Experimental The choice of clothing was based on the study "Kartläggning av kemikalieanvändning i kläder" (Swerea IVF, Report 09/52) and were purchased in Umeå during January 2014. The different categories of clothing were washed twice in a washing machine, without drying them in between and all wastewater was collected from the washer. Immediately after washing, samples of this water were transferred into 2 L glass containers and were analyzed for 126 compounds by three different laboratories (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). 5 Results The results show that the main types of chemicals that were released when the clothing was washed, regardless of the type of clothing, were process and functional chemicals. This was expected since functional chemicals are added to the garment and are usually not chemically bonded to the fabric, whilst the process chemicals should not be present in the final product at all. Chemicals belonging to the group unwanted chemicals were released in very small amounts to the wastewater whatever type of clothing washed. The functional chemicals represented 30 % of the analyzed target compounds but accounted for up to 99% (for t-shirts) of the release when the clothing was washed. The lowest contribution of functional chemicals to the total release of chemicals was from weatherproof jackets. Process chemicals dominated those released from weatherproof jackets (90%) and fleece sweaters (72%); for working pants, the contribution was 41%. The unwanted chemicals were present in much lower amounts in the laundry wastewater than the functional and process chemicals: they represented 1% or less of the chemicals detected. T-shirts is estimated to release the largest amount of chemicals (469 kg functional chemicals, 0.5 kg process chemicals and 0.07 kg unwanted chemicals) based on the yearly net supply and the first two washing cycles. Fleece sweaters released the least amount of chemicals; 1.8 kg functional chemicals, 2.9 kg process chemicals and 3 g unwanted chemicals. Phthalates, DINCH (a phthalate substitute), bisphenols, formaldehyde, and organophosphates were the groups of chemicals estimated to be released in largest amounts from the five types of clothing included in the study, contributing 47%, 25%, 12%, 12%, and 3%, respectively, to the total amount. Based on the yearly net supply of clothing included in this study, the estimated release of textile fibers varies between 100 kg for fleece sweaters up to 8,500 kg for t-shirts. T-shirts released 0.85 mg fibers per kg, jeans released 0.46 mg/kg, weatherproof jackets 0.02 mg/kg, working pants 0.07 mg/kg and fleece sweaters 0.1 mg/kg. Discussion Phthalates and organophosphates were estimated to be released in large amounts (302 kg and 7.6 kg) contribute with 50% and 5% respectively to the amounts found in effluents from wastewater treatment plants. Chlorophenols and perfluorinated compounds were estimated to be released in very low amounts (430 g and 300 g respectively). This is however still more, 167% and 223% respectively, than what is found annually in the effluents and sewage sludge of all Swedish WWTPs. The estimated contribution to sewage sludge for the different compound classes was far higher than the calculated contribution to effluent. The estimation produced a contribution figure of over 100% for some compound groups. Short chain chloroparaffins and chlorophenols were estimated to contribute to the amount found in sewage sludge to such a large degree that it exceeded what is actually found in the sewage sludge. Chlorophenols are distributed between both effluent and sewage sludge, but reference data was only found for sludge, so this could be the reason for the overestimation of the amount that ends up in the sewage sludge. It can also not be excluded that the selection of clothing was not representative of what is on the market. 6 Conclusions Chemicals that are banned according to legislation such as Reach should, in principle, not be present in clothing. Even so, they are sometimes found during inspections of manufacturing facilities and analyses of clothing. This is a large problem since the use of a chemical can be banned in some countries but not in others. Arylamines are, for example, forbidden within the EU, but one of those 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane could still be detected in all types of clothing. Now, the clothing that we wear comes from all over the world, and it is difficult to find information on which chemicals have been used in its production since that can take place in many different countries. This tractability needs to be improved. In this study, we detected 72 out of 126 compounds that are non-naturally occurring compounds, in the laundry wastewater. Among the compound groups that could not be detected were anilines, triclosan, triclocarban, and siloxanes. The compounds released in large amounts into the laundry wastewater in this study were the process chemical bisphenol S (BPS), and the functional chemicals phthalates (DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organophosphates (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) and formaldehyde. Considering the net supply of new clothing to Sweden, the estimated annual contribution of the release of such compounds from new clothing being washed for the first time will be substantial. Even though some of these chemicals will be degraded during the treatment process in the WWTP, many of them will end up in effluent or sewage sludge and, to different degrees, contribute to the compounds that risk ending up in WWTPs or where nutrients are recycled from sewage sludge. Future work To obtain a better picture of the volume of chemicals flowing to the WWTPs and, potentially, the environment, originating from the laundering of clothing, it would be of interest to study the release of chemicals from a broader range of clothing types. It would also be interesting to include analysis of the fabric to see what proportion of chemicals are released during laundry, and what proportion remain and are then potentially released during later washing or enter the textile waste stream. It would also be of great interest to carry out non-target analysis on both the textiles and the wastewater to form an even broader picture of which chemicals are present in the textiles and the wastewater.

The disposal of combustible wastes by incineration is a controversial issue that is strongly debated by both scientists and environmental activists due to the resulting emissions of noxious compounds, including (inter alia) polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), heavy metals and acid gases like sulfur dioxide. Currently available air pollution control devices are capable of effectively cleaning flue gases, and PCDD/F emissions to air from modern municipal solid waste (MSW) incinerators are low. However, the PCDD and PCDF end up in ash fractions that, in Sweden, are usually deposited in landfills. The European Union has recently set a maximum permitted total concentration of 15 µg TEQ/kg for PCDD/F species in waste. Fly ash from municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration containing PCDD/Fs at concentrations above this limit will have to be remediated to avoid disposing of them in landfills; an expensive and environmentally unfriendly option. Therefore, effective, reliable and cost-effective methods for degrading PCDD/F in fly ash are required, and a better understanding of the behavior of PCDDs and PCDFs during thermal treatment will be needed to develop them. In the studies this thesis is based upon both the formation and degradation of PCDDs and PCDFs in ashes from MSW incineration were studied. The main findings of the investigations regarding PCCD/F formation were: - The concentrations of PCDD and PCDF in fly ash increased with reductions in the temperature in the post-combustion zone. - The homologue profile in the ash changed when the temperature in the post-combustion zone changed. - The final amounts of PCDD and PCDF present were affected by their rates of both formation and degradation, and the mechanisms involved differ between PCDDs and PCDFs. The main findings from the degradation studies were: - The chemical composition of ash has a major impact on the degradation potential of PCDD and PCDF. - The presence of oxygen during thermal treatment can enhance the degradation of PCDD and PCDF. - Thermal treatment is a viable option for degrading PCDD and PCDF in ashes from MSW. - Shifts in chlorination degree occur during thermal treatment. - Rapid heat transfer into the ash is a key factor for ensuring fast degradation of PCDD and PCDF. - Degradation of other chlorinated organic compounds, e.g. PCB and HCB, also occurs during thermal treatment of ash. - Reductions in levels of PCDD and PCDF were not solely due to their desorption to the gas phase. - Differences between the behavior of 2378-substituted congeners of PCDD and PCDF and the other congeners during thermal treatment were observed. - Differences in isomer patterns of both PCDD and PCDF were observed between the ash and gas phases after thermal treatment at both 300 and 500 oC. Overall, the results show that the formation and degradation mechanisms of PCDDs differ substantially from those of PCDFs. Thus these groups of compounds should be separately considered in attempts to identify ways to reduce their concentrations.